A rotina é algo que consegue tirar a motivação de qualquer pessoa. Muitos começam suas carreiras profissionais super motivados, até mesmo empolgados com a perspectiva de sucesso profissional, porém, anos depois, tudo o que existe são reclamações da rotina escravizante e sugadora das forças que mantém o ânimo e a alegria da vida. A rotina não é somente responsável por fazer do trabalho uma das piores coisas da vida (há excessões), mas também é responsável por destruir relacionamentos (de um simples namoro até um casamento sólido), por tirar a poesia da vida, por estagnar o ser humano, fazendo dele um ser mecânico, limitado aos hábitos do dia-a-dia, sem a coragem de enfrentar o novo ou desconhecido.
Entre várias definições para a palavra rotina, uma me chamou a atenção. Rotina significa obedecer normas, evitar alterações ou mudanças. Talvez e acho que eu esteja certo, a grande razão da rotina ser tão devastadora, é justamente o fator não-mudança. Ainda que o ser humano não sobreviva sem certos hábitos, do tipo, alimentar-se, escovar os dentes, tomar banho, dormir e acordar todos os dias, ainda certos padrões de comportamentos, o fator mudança sempre fará parte da vida humana. Por mais que os conceitos entre hábito e rotina sejam semelhantes, não creio que as duas palavras sejam sinônimas. Na verdade, creio que é impossível viver sem hábitos, porém, acho que sobreviveríamos sem a rotina.
A palavra rotina, em si, carrega uma conotação negativa, como algo que traz maus sentimentos para quem dela faz uso. Já o hábito, em muitos casos, é sinônimo até de preservação de algo. Como por exemplo, comportamentos adquiridos em processos habituais de seres humanos da mesma comunidade.
Creio que as coisas pioram quando fazemos do nosso relacionamento com Deus uma coisa “rotineira”, ou seja, mecânica. O fator não-mudança no relacionamento com Deus, pode paralizar e congelar a nossa vida com Ele. Deus não muda em Seus atributos, porém, sempre trará mudanças na vida do homem que quer se aproximar e crescer nEle (em graça e em conhecimento). Esta dinâmica de mutabilidade de um Deus imutável se dá porque Deus conhece a necessidade humana de crescer, de melhorar, de transformar, de mudar. E Ele oferece está vida abundante, para aqueles que querem e que se aproximam com as motivações corretas.
Infelizmente, a religião tem o poder de operar contrariamente ao que Deus pode fazer em nós. A religião pode se tornar uma catalisadora de rotinas na alma humana. E ao fazer isto, a religião se torna responsável em destruir a vida de alegria e de contentamento, como também de consciência das responsabilidades, de um relacionamento saudável entre Deus e os homens.
Concluo dizendo que também encontramos em nós uma parcela de culpa, quando deixamos o nosso relacionamento com Deus paralizar por conta do poder nocivo da rotina da religião. Sim, pois o fator comodismo neste caso tem um papel importantíssimo. A vida cristã não se limita aos sermões da igreja, à adoração na igreja, ou aos projetos feitos pela igreja. Nós somos muito mais responsáveis pela manutenção da nossa vida cristã, do que a igreja. A nossa saúde espiritual deve ser preservada, ainda que não tenhamos um prédio para irmos aos finais de semana. Ou até mesmo se tivermos um, mas o virmos como um lugar apenas para marcar presença. Em ambos os casos, repousa sobre nós a responsabilidade de não deixarmos que a rotina massacrante da vida e da religião, apague o amor e a chama da presença de Deus em nossos corações.
Rodrigo Serrão
Tuesday, February 28, 2006
Thursday, February 23, 2006
Cansado
Estou cansado. Cansado fisicamente pelo tanto que leio. Parece que ler por um longo período de tempo tem o poder de cansar mais que um dia inteiro de exercícios físicos. Não estou frustrado com meu curso (Teologia), mas cansado. Na verdade, as vezes bate uma frustração-zinha lá no fundo da alma. As vezes me pergunto se não já sei o suficiente para falar sobre o Evangelho a toda criatura. As vezes me pergunto para que serve todo o conhecimento ensinado em Seminários. Gostaria de saber qual a porcentagem do uso de tudo aquilo para a vida prática, para os problemas reais da vida.
O conhecimento acadêmico tem o poder de seduzir as pessoas. Essa sedução se dá porque o conhecimento trás poder para quem o possui. E isto nem sempre me seduz!
De fato, resolvi aplicar para fazer uma viagem missionária neste verão, para permanecer vivo durante o meu tempo de Seminário, pois caso contrário, terei que encomendar um caixão para enterrar a minha alma. E foi esta a resposta que dei ao meu líder de grupo, no final-de-semana passado, quando ele me perguntou o porquê de eu querer ir à essa viagem missionária. Minha resposta foi simples e clara – Eu quero sobreviver ao sair do Seminário!!
Tenho me convencido mais e mais que não faz sentido se entregar a um chamado (ao ministério), se eu só fico estudando o dia inteiro (a carga de coisas para se estudar é tão grande que não se tem tempo para quase mais nada). Deixei de ver sentido nesta overdose de assuntos e teorias, e estou vendo que falta mais da prática dentro das instituições de ensino teológico.
Porém, quando digo prática, não me refiro a ministérios de igreja do tipo, professor de EBD, ministro de louvor, diretor de coral, ministério infantil, etc. Não vejo como prática algo que se limita às quatros paredes de um prédio. Acho que seremos muito mais úteis – e aqui falo aos seminaristas – do lado de fora das igrejas. Principalmente porque tudo que lá (igrejas) acontece segue uma rotina que mata qualquer um, principalmente aqueles quem já vivem em uma rotina permanente de estudos. Creio que o chamado de Deus para minha vida é para fora, para o mundo, para as pessoas “doentes”. Não que os de dentro também não estejam doentes (na maioria das vezes estão pior que os de fora). O que adianta sal dentro do saleiro e luz dentro de uma gaveta?
Tenho lutado cada dia mais contra a idéia de sistemas religiosos, principalmente aqueles que abusadamente falam sobre o Santo nome de Jesus (não acredito que Jesus veio à Terra para fundar uma religião). Não tenho visto nenhum sentido em sistemas que monopolizam o Soberano, clamando seguirem o Senhor Jesus (que é a encarnação do amor), mas que possuem uma história marcada de sangue, intolerância, guerras, desamor, ódio, manipulação, morte, etc. Essa é a história da “igreja” que tanto me entristece e me faz pensar milhões de vezes, se foi para isso mesmo que eu fui chamado. Sim, porque assim como todo sistema humano, uma vez dentro, ou você se “molda” a eles, ou inicia-se uma revolução, mas que com certeza não tem resultados positivos no final. Por outro lado, não me vejo fazendo outra coisa, que não seja ligado à pregação e ensino da Palavra.
Eu creio que ser discípulo de Jesus é outra coisa. Creio que o verdadeiro discípulo põe as mãos no barro da vida, e as suja! Ele se identifica com os esquecidos, os pecadores (como se houvesse alguem que não o fôsse), com os da periferia, com os pobres, com as viúvas, com os marginalizados, etc. Tiago disse no seu livro “A religião pura e imaculada diante de nosso Deus e Pai é esta: Visitar os órfãos e as viúvas nas suas aflições e guardar-se isento da corrupção do mundo.” (Tg 1.27).
O sociólogo Tony Campolo disse aqui onde eu estudo, que deveríamos ter cuidado com o pacote que é vendido em Seminários, pois nós não fomos chamados para fazer parte de instituições, fomos chamados sim, mas para pregar o Reino de Deus a toda a criatura. Ele disse que se tivéssemos que escolher entre título (diploma) e testemunho, que preferíssemos escolher testemunho.
O problema é que neste sistema mundano o título é a chave para se conseguir um “emprego”. Especialmente aqui nos EUA, onde a igreja é de fato uma grande empresa, onde tudo gira em torno de números, orçamentos e controle de qualidade.
Não sei o que me aguarda no futuro!
Minha oração é que eu chegue ao final da minha vida com a mais absoluta certeza de que não vendi a minha alma, e que consegui tanto o título, quanto o testemunho.
Rodrigo Serrão
O conhecimento acadêmico tem o poder de seduzir as pessoas. Essa sedução se dá porque o conhecimento trás poder para quem o possui. E isto nem sempre me seduz!
De fato, resolvi aplicar para fazer uma viagem missionária neste verão, para permanecer vivo durante o meu tempo de Seminário, pois caso contrário, terei que encomendar um caixão para enterrar a minha alma. E foi esta a resposta que dei ao meu líder de grupo, no final-de-semana passado, quando ele me perguntou o porquê de eu querer ir à essa viagem missionária. Minha resposta foi simples e clara – Eu quero sobreviver ao sair do Seminário!!
Tenho me convencido mais e mais que não faz sentido se entregar a um chamado (ao ministério), se eu só fico estudando o dia inteiro (a carga de coisas para se estudar é tão grande que não se tem tempo para quase mais nada). Deixei de ver sentido nesta overdose de assuntos e teorias, e estou vendo que falta mais da prática dentro das instituições de ensino teológico.
Porém, quando digo prática, não me refiro a ministérios de igreja do tipo, professor de EBD, ministro de louvor, diretor de coral, ministério infantil, etc. Não vejo como prática algo que se limita às quatros paredes de um prédio. Acho que seremos muito mais úteis – e aqui falo aos seminaristas – do lado de fora das igrejas. Principalmente porque tudo que lá (igrejas) acontece segue uma rotina que mata qualquer um, principalmente aqueles quem já vivem em uma rotina permanente de estudos. Creio que o chamado de Deus para minha vida é para fora, para o mundo, para as pessoas “doentes”. Não que os de dentro também não estejam doentes (na maioria das vezes estão pior que os de fora). O que adianta sal dentro do saleiro e luz dentro de uma gaveta?
Tenho lutado cada dia mais contra a idéia de sistemas religiosos, principalmente aqueles que abusadamente falam sobre o Santo nome de Jesus (não acredito que Jesus veio à Terra para fundar uma religião). Não tenho visto nenhum sentido em sistemas que monopolizam o Soberano, clamando seguirem o Senhor Jesus (que é a encarnação do amor), mas que possuem uma história marcada de sangue, intolerância, guerras, desamor, ódio, manipulação, morte, etc. Essa é a história da “igreja” que tanto me entristece e me faz pensar milhões de vezes, se foi para isso mesmo que eu fui chamado. Sim, porque assim como todo sistema humano, uma vez dentro, ou você se “molda” a eles, ou inicia-se uma revolução, mas que com certeza não tem resultados positivos no final. Por outro lado, não me vejo fazendo outra coisa, que não seja ligado à pregação e ensino da Palavra.
Eu creio que ser discípulo de Jesus é outra coisa. Creio que o verdadeiro discípulo põe as mãos no barro da vida, e as suja! Ele se identifica com os esquecidos, os pecadores (como se houvesse alguem que não o fôsse), com os da periferia, com os pobres, com as viúvas, com os marginalizados, etc. Tiago disse no seu livro “A religião pura e imaculada diante de nosso Deus e Pai é esta: Visitar os órfãos e as viúvas nas suas aflições e guardar-se isento da corrupção do mundo.” (Tg 1.27).
O sociólogo Tony Campolo disse aqui onde eu estudo, que deveríamos ter cuidado com o pacote que é vendido em Seminários, pois nós não fomos chamados para fazer parte de instituições, fomos chamados sim, mas para pregar o Reino de Deus a toda a criatura. Ele disse que se tivéssemos que escolher entre título (diploma) e testemunho, que preferíssemos escolher testemunho.
O problema é que neste sistema mundano o título é a chave para se conseguir um “emprego”. Especialmente aqui nos EUA, onde a igreja é de fato uma grande empresa, onde tudo gira em torno de números, orçamentos e controle de qualidade.
Não sei o que me aguarda no futuro!
Minha oração é que eu chegue ao final da minha vida com a mais absoluta certeza de que não vendi a minha alma, e que consegui tanto o título, quanto o testemunho.
Rodrigo Serrão
Monday, February 20, 2006
Book Review - The Humanity of God
Barth’s work in this book does not focus on just one issue. On the contrary, the book is an answer for three major issues within Christianity: 1) The role of Theology, particularly in this case with 19th century theology; 2) Christology and the question of the humanity of God; and 3) Human freedom and the issue of Christian ethics. Each one of these issues is strongly connected but at the same time they can exist in complete independence and separation from each other.
Karl Barth is considered the greatest theologian of the 20th century not only because of his great works, especially Church Dogmatics, but also because he brought Christianity back to the near-forgotten orthodoxy. Barth wrote about 19th century theology (from Schleiermacher to Ritschl) and shed light on their theology by pointing out where they failed as theologians and the reasons for why that happened. Barth was aware of the cultural context where those theologians were involved, and how that particular culture negatively influenced the construction of a sound theology. Theologians of the 19th century were “first animated and nourished by Herder and the Romantics, as well as by the religious and national awakening of the Napoleonic era” (pg. 13). For Barth, theology had “turned into philosophy of the history of religion in general, and of Christian religion in particular” (pg. 13). He also says, “There was scarcely a theologian who did not also consider himself a professional philosopher” (pg. 21). Barth then moves towards several minor criticisms of the aspects of that theology, from ethics to spirituality, from the apathy of the Christian life to evangelistic zeal. Barth’s major resistance was against the thought of an exaggerated anthropocentrism that permeated and influenced many, if not all great theologians of the 19th century. Clearly the key word for this first essay would be anthropocentrism. It is here where all the difference is made. The question that rises when you approach 19th century theology could be who you will focus your attention upon the most, on man or on God?
Karl Barth’s second essay entitles the book. Although, for a distracted reader the subject discussed in this essay appears to have nothing to do with the first one. But in reality, there are connections between both essays. Actually, Barth’s Christology can be better compared to theologians from the age of reformation or even earlier than that, but it is in total disparity from the theology of the 19th century. Therefore, this essay could be seen as the orthodox or in Barth’s case the “neo”-orthodox response to the theology of the 19th century. His major thesis in this chapter is undoubtedly the doctrine of Christ, His humanity and His deity. For Barth, the knowledge of Christ’s humanity and deity cannot be derived from one another. They are strictly interrelated. He says on page 46, “It is precisely God’s deity which, rightly understood, includes his humanity.” For Barth, Jesus is the perfect expression of God. He says, “In Jesus Christ there is no isolation of man from God or of God from man” (pg. 46). And his humanity is the perfect link between God and man, “even the oddest, most villainous or miserable, as one to whom Jesus Christ is Brother and God is Father” (pg. 53). In Barth’s articulation of the glorious salvation provided by God to all men, he enters into a concept that can lead someone to think that he is defending universalism. On page 60 he states that “the human spirit is naturally Christian.” One may charge Barth as a defender of universalism. Even he recognizes the closeness of his teachings with the doctrine of universalism. He closes his view about salvation in Christ and the issue of universalism by saying that “we have no theological right to set any sort of limits to the loving-kindness of God which has appeared in Jesus Christ” (pg. 62).
He also brings up the concept of outsiders and insiders when he says that “the so-called ‘outsiders’ are really only ‘insiders’ who have not yet understood and apprehended themselves as such” (pg. 59). This essay contains some key words. The most evident ones are humanity, and deity. But we can also say that the word relationship plays a great role in Barth’s teaching of the humanity of God, especially among the persons of the Trinity.
Following a logical sequence, Karl Barth takes us to his last essay of the book. Now we come to the application of what has been discussed so far. We come to the issue of Christian freedom. He starts speaking about God’s own freedom, and then he moves towards man’s own freedom. For Karl Barth, the freedom of man is totally tied to the freedom of God. For him, God’s freedom is the source of human freedom (pg. 71). In relating human freedom to God’s, Barth erases the thought of an “I can do whatever I want” type of freedom. He says that “God’s freedom is essentially not freedom from, but freedom to and for” (pg. 72). And he connects this type of freedom with human freedom. Personally, I think that Barth’s idea of “human freedom is freedom only within the limitations of God’s own freedom.” does not make me feel totally comfortable. I cannot think of a God that is limited in any circumstance, even by His freedom. But, on the other hand, I agree with him when he limits man’s freedom. This is why this major thesis of human freedom breaks up in the minor thesis of Christian ethics. Freedom is related to the grace of God, and grace upon man. Barth says, “Human freedom is the gift of God in the free outpouring of His grace” (pg. 75). And he concludes by saying “the gift is total, unequivocal, and irrevocable. It remains the gift of freedom even though it may be turned into man’s judgment if misunderstood or misused” (pg. 76). Perhaps the reason that Barth ties men’s freedom with God’s freedom is to not leave room for the possibility of sin. Indeed, Barth says that “in human freedom there is no room for sin by fiat” (pg. 77). Furthermore, Barth will say that human freedom is to accomplish the causa Dei in the world. This will be the mission of each Christian, as he says, “this is the meaning of God’s covenant with man…this is the freedom of discipleship bestowed upon him” (pg. 81).
As a second part of this third essay, Barth concentrates on Christian ethics and its implications after his teachings on human freedom. He states that “ethics is reflection upon what man is required to do in and with the gift of freedom” (pg. 87). For him, a proper understanding of the freedom offered by God to His children, will determine a correct manner to proceed in all nuances of life. A misunderstanding of this freedom, will compromise human conduct and relationship with the One who deliberates this freedom.
He concludes by speaking about the “special ethics” of free theologians, and all the implications that follow this concept. He calls this theme “the ethics of theology itself and the ethos of the free theologians” and for him it is a “small and often neglected area” (pg. 89). It is interesting to notice that he starts the book with an overall view on 19th century theology and theologians, and finishes it by talking about theologians and theology as well. Barth points out five characteristics that make a free theologian complete. For him, a free theologian will always begin his thinking at the beginning (talking about the resurrection of Christ), will be scripturally supported, will not be ashamed of his philosophical views, will think and speak in the context of the Church and will always be in communication with other theologians.
Undoubtedly, the word free and freedom play the major role in Barth’s last essay. He articulates with talent all the implications of these two words in the life of the people of God, bringing a full understanding of this controversial issue.
Rodrigo Serrao
Karl Barth is considered the greatest theologian of the 20th century not only because of his great works, especially Church Dogmatics, but also because he brought Christianity back to the near-forgotten orthodoxy. Barth wrote about 19th century theology (from Schleiermacher to Ritschl) and shed light on their theology by pointing out where they failed as theologians and the reasons for why that happened. Barth was aware of the cultural context where those theologians were involved, and how that particular culture negatively influenced the construction of a sound theology. Theologians of the 19th century were “first animated and nourished by Herder and the Romantics, as well as by the religious and national awakening of the Napoleonic era” (pg. 13). For Barth, theology had “turned into philosophy of the history of religion in general, and of Christian religion in particular” (pg. 13). He also says, “There was scarcely a theologian who did not also consider himself a professional philosopher” (pg. 21). Barth then moves towards several minor criticisms of the aspects of that theology, from ethics to spirituality, from the apathy of the Christian life to evangelistic zeal. Barth’s major resistance was against the thought of an exaggerated anthropocentrism that permeated and influenced many, if not all great theologians of the 19th century. Clearly the key word for this first essay would be anthropocentrism. It is here where all the difference is made. The question that rises when you approach 19th century theology could be who you will focus your attention upon the most, on man or on God?
Karl Barth’s second essay entitles the book. Although, for a distracted reader the subject discussed in this essay appears to have nothing to do with the first one. But in reality, there are connections between both essays. Actually, Barth’s Christology can be better compared to theologians from the age of reformation or even earlier than that, but it is in total disparity from the theology of the 19th century. Therefore, this essay could be seen as the orthodox or in Barth’s case the “neo”-orthodox response to the theology of the 19th century. His major thesis in this chapter is undoubtedly the doctrine of Christ, His humanity and His deity. For Barth, the knowledge of Christ’s humanity and deity cannot be derived from one another. They are strictly interrelated. He says on page 46, “It is precisely God’s deity which, rightly understood, includes his humanity.” For Barth, Jesus is the perfect expression of God. He says, “In Jesus Christ there is no isolation of man from God or of God from man” (pg. 46). And his humanity is the perfect link between God and man, “even the oddest, most villainous or miserable, as one to whom Jesus Christ is Brother and God is Father” (pg. 53). In Barth’s articulation of the glorious salvation provided by God to all men, he enters into a concept that can lead someone to think that he is defending universalism. On page 60 he states that “the human spirit is naturally Christian.” One may charge Barth as a defender of universalism. Even he recognizes the closeness of his teachings with the doctrine of universalism. He closes his view about salvation in Christ and the issue of universalism by saying that “we have no theological right to set any sort of limits to the loving-kindness of God which has appeared in Jesus Christ” (pg. 62).
He also brings up the concept of outsiders and insiders when he says that “the so-called ‘outsiders’ are really only ‘insiders’ who have not yet understood and apprehended themselves as such” (pg. 59). This essay contains some key words. The most evident ones are humanity, and deity. But we can also say that the word relationship plays a great role in Barth’s teaching of the humanity of God, especially among the persons of the Trinity.
Following a logical sequence, Karl Barth takes us to his last essay of the book. Now we come to the application of what has been discussed so far. We come to the issue of Christian freedom. He starts speaking about God’s own freedom, and then he moves towards man’s own freedom. For Karl Barth, the freedom of man is totally tied to the freedom of God. For him, God’s freedom is the source of human freedom (pg. 71). In relating human freedom to God’s, Barth erases the thought of an “I can do whatever I want” type of freedom. He says that “God’s freedom is essentially not freedom from, but freedom to and for” (pg. 72). And he connects this type of freedom with human freedom. Personally, I think that Barth’s idea of “human freedom is freedom only within the limitations of God’s own freedom.” does not make me feel totally comfortable. I cannot think of a God that is limited in any circumstance, even by His freedom. But, on the other hand, I agree with him when he limits man’s freedom. This is why this major thesis of human freedom breaks up in the minor thesis of Christian ethics. Freedom is related to the grace of God, and grace upon man. Barth says, “Human freedom is the gift of God in the free outpouring of His grace” (pg. 75). And he concludes by saying “the gift is total, unequivocal, and irrevocable. It remains the gift of freedom even though it may be turned into man’s judgment if misunderstood or misused” (pg. 76). Perhaps the reason that Barth ties men’s freedom with God’s freedom is to not leave room for the possibility of sin. Indeed, Barth says that “in human freedom there is no room for sin by fiat” (pg. 77). Furthermore, Barth will say that human freedom is to accomplish the causa Dei in the world. This will be the mission of each Christian, as he says, “this is the meaning of God’s covenant with man…this is the freedom of discipleship bestowed upon him” (pg. 81).
As a second part of this third essay, Barth concentrates on Christian ethics and its implications after his teachings on human freedom. He states that “ethics is reflection upon what man is required to do in and with the gift of freedom” (pg. 87). For him, a proper understanding of the freedom offered by God to His children, will determine a correct manner to proceed in all nuances of life. A misunderstanding of this freedom, will compromise human conduct and relationship with the One who deliberates this freedom.
He concludes by speaking about the “special ethics” of free theologians, and all the implications that follow this concept. He calls this theme “the ethics of theology itself and the ethos of the free theologians” and for him it is a “small and often neglected area” (pg. 89). It is interesting to notice that he starts the book with an overall view on 19th century theology and theologians, and finishes it by talking about theologians and theology as well. Barth points out five characteristics that make a free theologian complete. For him, a free theologian will always begin his thinking at the beginning (talking about the resurrection of Christ), will be scripturally supported, will not be ashamed of his philosophical views, will think and speak in the context of the Church and will always be in communication with other theologians.
Undoubtedly, the word free and freedom play the major role in Barth’s last essay. He articulates with talent all the implications of these two words in the life of the people of God, bringing a full understanding of this controversial issue.
Rodrigo Serrao
Tuesday, February 07, 2006
Caldeirão
Sei que ultimamente não tenho escrito textos de interesse mais amplo na língua portuguesa, com ênfase no cotidiano da vida cristã. Acho que para piorar, os textos que tenho escrito recentemente são trabalhos acadêmicos que muitas vezes não interessa a quase ninguém.
Estou ciente disto, porém, mesmo sem está escrevendo, tenho lido, visto e ouvido a muitos aqui.
A comparação disto seria como alguém que apenas observa, mas que quase não abre a boca para falar. Tenho lido, sobre quase tudo no campo da teologia, entre teólogos liberais, ortodoxos, neo-ortodoxos, neo ou pós-liberais. Tenho lido teologia produzida no Brasil (de boa e de má qualidade), nos EUA (idem), na Europa, e até na Africa.
O caldeirão de idéias não pára por aí. Tenho feito amizades com pessoas de diferentes religiões, culturas e histórias. Com isto, eu vejo como se comportam pessoas que são de orientação cristã da India, da Alemanha, da Africa, da China ou Korea. Outras que não são cristãos, mas pertencem à religião oficial dos seus respectivos países, como Hindus do Nepal, ou Mulçumanos da Turquia. Todos estes trazem ao caldeirão da minha vida as suas experiências, suas lutas e suas esperanças. E eu não sou cego para que não veja a diversidade de cada indivíduo neste grande spectrum de ideologias e crenças.
Porém, ainda que pareça que tudo isto seja suficiente, ainda posso dizer que tem mais. Congrego em uma igreja Batista, localizada no coração do Texas, no que chamamos de “Bible Belt”, ou seja, o cinturão da Bíblia. Ou como outros preferem chamar, os “Southern Baptists” que quer dizer Batistas do Sul. Esta região, e mais especificamente este grupo Batista, pode ser considerado um dos grupos religiosos mais fundamentalistas do planeta. Em dizendo isto, não quero trazer nenhuma conotação negativa, nem tão pouco positiva. Isto é apenas uma característica que eu estou apontando. Tenho ouvido semana após semana, os sermões que procedem da boca de pregadores de diversas partes do Estado do Texas. Também tenho parado em salas de aula do Seminário, para ouvir teólogos (as) e historiadores. Cheguei ao ponto de ouvir até a esposa de um dos professores que falava sobre o papel da esposa do pastor e sua influência sobre a congregação. Cada um destes que citei acima das mais diferentes linhas de pensamento, posições e ações. Portanto, dá para se notar que tenho “ouvido” bastante.
A sensação que eu tenho é que todas essas influências estão de certa forma sendo processadas em meu cérebro, onde juntamente com a leitura da Bíblia, especialmente em uma perspectiva totalmente Cristocêntrica, não apenas em termos teológicos, mas também em termos hermenêuticos, ou seja, Jesus (vida e ministério) como a única lente da interpretação bíblica, e a cruz do Calvário como a demonstração maior do amor e graça de Deus sobre os homens, trazendo sobre mim a noção de que eu não sei de quase nada e que Deus é mistério puro.
Sei que estou sendo bastante relativo e pluralista, mas quando se vive neste caldeirão, apenas os que não tem uma mente crítica, ousaria dizer que sabem alguma coisa. Quando saímos do nosso mundo, da nossa realidade, da nossa segurança, e partimos para aquilo que não conhecemos, percebemos que existem muito mais realidades fora, onde meus olhos não alcançam, do que dentro, onde eu posso até tocar com as minhas mãos.
E o resultado de tudo isto? Seria bom ou mau? Trágico ou esperançoso? Para a vida ou para a morte? Não sei! O que sei é que hoje, mais do que nunca, creio que existe um Deus acima de mim, que não ama apenas as pessoas dos mais variados segmentos religiosos, mas que ama o mundo inteiro igualmente. Sei que existe um Jesus, que caminhou neste planeta, que amou aqueles que não mereciam e nEle a plena divindade e a plena humanidade se encontraram e se beijaram. Isto são convicções que estão arraigadas em meu coração e que de lá não sairão jamais. O resto eu não sei, e creio que jamais vou saber em sua completude, e não tenho medo de confessar isto. Sou relativo e estou em processo, e assim estarei até o dia em que o Senhor da vida me levar. Enquanto isto não acontece, eu leio, vejo e ouço o que todos dizem ser a verdade para elas. E quanto mais faço isto, mais eu me lembro das palavras de Jesus que diz: “Ame o teu Deus de todo o teu coração, e ao teu próximo como a ti mesmo”. É neste caldeirão, onde eu vejo o amor de Deus e onde eu tenho a oportunidade de mesmo em meio aos mais diferentes estilos de vida e de adoração, mostrar e viver o amor de Deus através da minha consciência em Jesus Cristo, como o único Senhor e Salvador da humanidade.
No amor de Cristo,
Rodrigo Serrão
Estou ciente disto, porém, mesmo sem está escrevendo, tenho lido, visto e ouvido a muitos aqui.
A comparação disto seria como alguém que apenas observa, mas que quase não abre a boca para falar. Tenho lido, sobre quase tudo no campo da teologia, entre teólogos liberais, ortodoxos, neo-ortodoxos, neo ou pós-liberais. Tenho lido teologia produzida no Brasil (de boa e de má qualidade), nos EUA (idem), na Europa, e até na Africa.
O caldeirão de idéias não pára por aí. Tenho feito amizades com pessoas de diferentes religiões, culturas e histórias. Com isto, eu vejo como se comportam pessoas que são de orientação cristã da India, da Alemanha, da Africa, da China ou Korea. Outras que não são cristãos, mas pertencem à religião oficial dos seus respectivos países, como Hindus do Nepal, ou Mulçumanos da Turquia. Todos estes trazem ao caldeirão da minha vida as suas experiências, suas lutas e suas esperanças. E eu não sou cego para que não veja a diversidade de cada indivíduo neste grande spectrum de ideologias e crenças.
Porém, ainda que pareça que tudo isto seja suficiente, ainda posso dizer que tem mais. Congrego em uma igreja Batista, localizada no coração do Texas, no que chamamos de “Bible Belt”, ou seja, o cinturão da Bíblia. Ou como outros preferem chamar, os “Southern Baptists” que quer dizer Batistas do Sul. Esta região, e mais especificamente este grupo Batista, pode ser considerado um dos grupos religiosos mais fundamentalistas do planeta. Em dizendo isto, não quero trazer nenhuma conotação negativa, nem tão pouco positiva. Isto é apenas uma característica que eu estou apontando. Tenho ouvido semana após semana, os sermões que procedem da boca de pregadores de diversas partes do Estado do Texas. Também tenho parado em salas de aula do Seminário, para ouvir teólogos (as) e historiadores. Cheguei ao ponto de ouvir até a esposa de um dos professores que falava sobre o papel da esposa do pastor e sua influência sobre a congregação. Cada um destes que citei acima das mais diferentes linhas de pensamento, posições e ações. Portanto, dá para se notar que tenho “ouvido” bastante.
A sensação que eu tenho é que todas essas influências estão de certa forma sendo processadas em meu cérebro, onde juntamente com a leitura da Bíblia, especialmente em uma perspectiva totalmente Cristocêntrica, não apenas em termos teológicos, mas também em termos hermenêuticos, ou seja, Jesus (vida e ministério) como a única lente da interpretação bíblica, e a cruz do Calvário como a demonstração maior do amor e graça de Deus sobre os homens, trazendo sobre mim a noção de que eu não sei de quase nada e que Deus é mistério puro.
Sei que estou sendo bastante relativo e pluralista, mas quando se vive neste caldeirão, apenas os que não tem uma mente crítica, ousaria dizer que sabem alguma coisa. Quando saímos do nosso mundo, da nossa realidade, da nossa segurança, e partimos para aquilo que não conhecemos, percebemos que existem muito mais realidades fora, onde meus olhos não alcançam, do que dentro, onde eu posso até tocar com as minhas mãos.
E o resultado de tudo isto? Seria bom ou mau? Trágico ou esperançoso? Para a vida ou para a morte? Não sei! O que sei é que hoje, mais do que nunca, creio que existe um Deus acima de mim, que não ama apenas as pessoas dos mais variados segmentos religiosos, mas que ama o mundo inteiro igualmente. Sei que existe um Jesus, que caminhou neste planeta, que amou aqueles que não mereciam e nEle a plena divindade e a plena humanidade se encontraram e se beijaram. Isto são convicções que estão arraigadas em meu coração e que de lá não sairão jamais. O resto eu não sei, e creio que jamais vou saber em sua completude, e não tenho medo de confessar isto. Sou relativo e estou em processo, e assim estarei até o dia em que o Senhor da vida me levar. Enquanto isto não acontece, eu leio, vejo e ouço o que todos dizem ser a verdade para elas. E quanto mais faço isto, mais eu me lembro das palavras de Jesus que diz: “Ame o teu Deus de todo o teu coração, e ao teu próximo como a ti mesmo”. É neste caldeirão, onde eu vejo o amor de Deus e onde eu tenho a oportunidade de mesmo em meio aos mais diferentes estilos de vida e de adoração, mostrar e viver o amor de Deus através da minha consciência em Jesus Cristo, como o único Senhor e Salvador da humanidade.
No amor de Cristo,
Rodrigo Serrão
Friday, February 03, 2006
Exegesis on Mark 5.1-20
Gerasene Demoniac: Mark 5.1-20
(All Scripture references are taken from the New Revised Standard Version)
I - Introductory Matters
A. Biblical Context
1. Author:
a. Anonymous
“The second Gospel, like the other three, is anonymous. It does not even allude to authorship (Cf. Lk 1.1-4; Jo 21.24)” (Guelich, Intro, xxv).
b. Early Church Tradition
“There is a strong and clear early tradition that Mark was its author and that he was closely associated with the apostle Peter, from whom he obtained his information about Jesus” (Wessel, 605). “But who was Mark? The answer has generally been based on information from a lost five-volume work of Papias, the bishop of Hieropolis cited by Eusebius” (Ecclesiastical History 3.39.15):
“Traditionally, ‘Mark’ has been identified with the Mark of 1 Pet 5.13; Acts 12.12-25; 13.13; 15.37-39 and the Pauline corpus. He was ‘John Mark’”. (Guelich, Intro, xxviii).
2. OT Comparisons: Prophet Isaiah
a. “Isa. 65.1-15 contains what could be read by the church as an allusion to Jesus’ entering the Decapolis” (65.1).
b. “Those ‘who sit in tombs, and spend the night in secret places; who eat swine’s flesh’” (v. 4)
c. “who say, ‘Keep to yourself, do not come near me’” (v. 5).
d. “The LXX adds to v. 3b, ‘burning incense upon bricks to demons (tois daimoniois - tois daimonios) which have no existence” and to v. 11, “who set a table for the demon (to daimonion - to daimonion; Heb., “Fortune”)” (Wink’s endnotes, 183).
3. Exorcisms in the Gospels
a. Synoptic Gospels
(1) Man with Unclean Spirit in Synagogue at Capernaum
(Mark 1:23-28, Luke 4:33-37) (Just, catholic-resources.org)
(2) Beelzebul Controversy
(Mark 3:22-30, Matt 12:22:30, Luke 11:14-15) (Ibid.)
(3) Gerasene Demoniac
(Mark 5:1-20, Matt 8:28-34, Luke 8:26-39) (Ibid.)
(4) Syro-Phoenician Woman's Daughter
(Mark 7:24-30, Matt 15:21-28) (Ibid.)
(5) Boy with an Epileptic Spirit
(Mark 9:14-29, Matt 17:14-21, Luke 9:37-43a) (Ibid.)
(6) Another Exorcist
(Mark 9:38-41, Matt 10:42, Luke 9:49-50) (Ibid.)
b. Gospel of John
“There are no exorcism stories in the Gospel of John” (Ibid.).
4. Synoptic Comparisons
a. Matthew 8.28-34 – Matthew’s narrative of this passage calls the place where the event took place the country of the Gadarenes, instead of, Gerasenes as Mark and Luke do. Matthew’s narrative reports two demon possessed people. Mark and Luke only repot one. Also, Matthew’s account is shorter including only 6 verses, whereas, Mark’s account has 20 verses and Luke 13.
b. Luke 8.26-39 – Luke follows Mark’s narrative, omitting some information, for instance Mark’s verses 3-5.
B. Social-Cultural Context
1. The Decapolis: Home of Gentiles
“The social location of this passage is crucial. For this is Jesus’ first entry into the Decapolis, ten proud Greek cities founded or enlarged by Alexander the Great and his successors and settled with Macedonian veterans.” (Wink, 44)
2. Gerasa
“Boasted of a temple to Zeus Olympus (to whom pigs were sacrificed) and, from 22-23 C.E. on, a temple dedicated to the cult of Caesar. Pompey brought them under Roman control. Augustus awarded Gadara, Hippos, and Scythopolis to Herod; when the Gadarenes failed in their petition against Herod’s cruelty they suffered even more cruelty.” (Ibid.)
C. Literary Criticism: Features that raise questions on how many different authors
(Several features raise the question whether, despite the smooth flow of the narrative as a whole, more than one hand has shared in fashioning the story as we have it.)
1. Doublets and repetitions
“Verses 2 and 6 (Jesus meeting the demoniac), vv. 3 and 5 (the demoniac’s home in the tombs, vv. 10 and 12 (the request of the demon), vv. 14 and 16 (the swineherds’ account of the incident)” (Rudolf, 351)
2. Afterthoughts
“Verse 6 (the demoniac had seen Jesus from a distance), v. 8 (Jesus had ordered the demon to leave the man), v. 15c (the remainder that the demoniac had had the legion), v. 16b (the swine are mentioned as an afterthought)” (Ibid.).
3. Discrepancies
“Between v. 2 and 6 (Jesus met the demoniac immediately on leaving the boat/the demoniac saw Jesus from a distance and ran towards him)” (Ibid.).
4. Use of a different vocabulary
“Verse 2 mnhmeiwn(mnemeion), v. 3 and v. 5 mnhma (mnema), vv. 15 e 16 daimonizomenoV (daimonizomenos) and v. 18 daimonisqeiV (daimonistheis)” (Ibid.).
D. Different approaches
1. René Girard’s interpretation of the passage
René Girard is a famous French Philosopher, Historian and Philologist (those who study ancient texts and languages) who has approached the passage of the Gerasene demoniac in a totally unique manner. “According to René, the townspeople have a more deep relationship with the Demoniac. He argues that it is really possible to fashion chains too powerful for anyone to break. ‘The Gerasenes and their demons have for some time settled into some sort of cyclical pathology,” Girard writes” (Wink, 45). “In short, the possessed man had become a perpetual scapegoat for the community. It is curious that the swineherds asked Jesus to leave in response to a healing that supposedly, they wanted. Girard argues that the swineherds were actually angry over being deprived of their scapegoat” (Andrew, ATR, fall 1998). The townspeople need him to act out their own violence. “The possessed imitates the Gerasenes who stone their victims, but the Gerasenes also imitate their possessed. It is a relationship of doubles and mirrors that exist between persecuted and this persecuting persecuted individual. The relationship is one of mimetic antagonism” (Wink, 46).
2. Father Cyrille Argenti’s symbolic approach
Father Cyrille Argenti is a priest of the Greek Orthodox Church in Marseille. His views on Mark 5.1-20 have interesting meditation insights.
He says: “So you notice that before exorcising the evil spirits from the demoniac, he [Jesus] first calms the waves. And this reminds what takes place in the Orthodox ceremony of Baptism. Before christening the child or the adult, in other words, before freeing him from bondage to the enemy, we bless the water – a sign that Christ restores not only the fallen man but the whole fallen creation . . . First he [the demoniac] is in chain and fetters. When man falls under the power of the devil, he becomes a slave” (Argenti, 401). “He [St. John Chrysostom] mentions first who have become slaves of erotic passion. Passion makes a man loses his freedom. But, he stresses more another form of slavery. He speaks of avarice” (ibid, 402).
II - Exegesis Proper
A. Jesus and the Demoniac (v. 1-13)
1. Description of the Demoniac (v. 1-5)
a. Verse 1 – They came to the other side of the sea, to the country of the Gerasenes
“By its repetition of the preposition eiV, the Greek text draws attention to the two fold description of the location. It is firstly “the other side of the sea” (a purely geographical location), but it is also “the country of the Gerasenes” (an ethico-religious indication). Far from being accidental, this wealth of detail is extremely significant” (Starobinski, 382). Or perhaps “The very name ‘Gerasa’, which may be a fanciful allusion to the Hebrew grs, ‘to drive out, cast out, expel’” (Wink, 43).
(1) Place’s name controversy or dilemma
Gerashnwn - in Mark and Luke you read – Gerasenes - (30 miles from the shore)
Gadaphnwn - in Matthew the name of the place is – Gadara - (6 miles from the shore)
(2) A better option
“Gergeshnwn - the similarity of name indicates that it has been confused with the nearer Gergesa” (Gould, 87). “A ruin much nearer the shore and called Khersa has been discovered and may have been in the district subject to Gadara” (Turlington, 307). “Not far from this site there is a cliff within forty meters of the shore and some old tombs” (Wessel, 657).
b. Verse 2 – And when he had stepped out of the boat
(1) Chronological Tension
“Many interpreters have noted the chronological tension between this story, which transpires during the day, and the previous one, which occurs during the night” (Guelich, 277).
(2) No Tension
“This position is not held by Wessel: Since it was already evening (Cf. 4.35) when they started across the lake, by the time they reached the other side it was probably dark” (Wessel, 657).
c. Verse 2 continued – Immediately a man out of the tombs with an unclean spirit met him
“First of two encounters (Cf. 5.6)” (Guelich, 277). “Verse 6 clarifies the situation. The man actually saw Jesus from a distance and came running to him” (Wessel, 657)
d. Verses 3-5 – He lived among the tombs; and no one could restrain him any more, even with a chain; for he had often been restrained with shackles and chains, but the chains he wrenched apart, and the shackles he broke in pieces; and no one had the strength to subdue him. Night and day among the tombs and on the mountains he was always howling and bruising himself with stones.
(1) Markan Exclusivity
These verses are exclusive to Mark’s account of the passage.
(2) Why Cemeteries?
“Cemeteries were believed to be the abode of demons” (Anderson, 148)
(3) Characteristics of Madness
“Talmudic prescriptions provide four tests of madness: spending the night in a grave, tearing one’s clothes, walking around at night, and destroying anything given. All such signs are present in this case” (Mann, 278).
(4) Midrashic Development
“The break coupled with reference to the man’s dwelling and the presence of five hapax legomena may support the thesis that the verses represent a midrashic development of the tradition based on Isa 65.4-6 and Ps 67.7” (Guelich 277).
2. Demoniac’s Encounter with Jesus (v. 6-10)
a. Verse 6 – When he saw Jesus from a distance, he ran and bowed down before him;
(1) From a distance - apo makroqen (apo makrothen)
“This verse resumes and develops the action in 5.2 (Anderson, 148). It is possible that in this verse we find some slight evidence for the two narratives telescoped in Matthew. In this verse the story is resumed, but here the demoniac sees Jesus from a distance, while in v. 2 Jesus meets him as soon as he leaves the boat” (Mann, 278).
(2) The Demoniac’s Plea
“He must have supposed in his demented condition that by prostrating himself before Jesus, by asking him not to meddle with him, by identifying him as Jesus, Son of the Most High God, and by his plea in God’s name not to torment him, maybe Jesus would leave him alone” (Turlington, 308)
b. Verse 7 – And he shouted at the top of his voice, “what have you to do with me, Jesus, son of the Most High God? I adjure you by God, do not torment me.
(1) The Most High God
“The specific name “the Most High God” has particular relevance for this “gentile” setting, since it almost always occurs in the LXX on the lips or in the context of Gentiles” (Guelich, 279).
(2) Demoniac’s Intention
“Although his rushing up to prostate himself before Jesus suggests a gesture of worship appropriate to Jesus’ identity, the demoniac’s words reflect a desire to drive Jesus away that is characteristic of the exorcism genre” (Perkins, 583; Wessel, 657). “To keep the Son of God off their back – to protect themselves” (Garland, 204).
c. Verse 8 – For he had said to him, “come out of the man, you unclean spirit!" (1) Command not obeyed?
“Without doubt, the comment stands in awkward tension with what has gone before by implying a previous ineffectual command for the unclean spirit to come out of the man. Thus, Haenchen (192-3) attributes this to a redactor’s misunderstanding of 5.2-7” (Guelich, 280).
(2) Harmonizing the tension
“Jesus had been saying (the verb is imperfect) to the unclean spirit, Come out of the man. However, the deep distress of the man was not readily banished. So Jesus began asking him (again the verb is imperfect and implies some repetition), what is your name?” (Turlington, 308). “Was already saying - elegen (elegen) - This imperfect tense may be used as a pluperfect, ‘he had been saying’, or even in a Semitic sense of ‘command’, but we have attempted to suggest that Jesus was repeating the injunction – a simple command was insufficient, given the gravity of the case. In this view, the question in v. 9 is far more explicable” (Mann, 279)
d. Verse 9 – Then Jesus asked him, “What is your name?” he replied, “my name is legion; for we are many.”
(1) What’s in a name?
“Typically, this request for the name represents a ploy used by the exorcist in gaining control over the spirit”. (Guelich, 280)
(2) Origin
“There was the Hebrew word Ligyon from the Latin legion. It is possible that a Semitic word denoting host or legion has been translated by Mark into the nearest Latin word” (Ibid)
(3) Legion
“For we are many” - oti polloi esmen (oti polloi esmen) - makes clear that the ‘name’ primarily connoted a vast number rather than an identity by which the exorcist might gain control over the unclean spirit. (Ibid)
(4) Conclusion
“Whatever was the name, it signified a host of evil spirits which made their human host both homicidal and suicidal” (Bowman, 143-44). “Jesus does not confront just one unclean spirit but a whole body of Satan’s troops” (Williamson, 105).
e. Verse 10 – And he begged him earnestly not to send them out of the country.
‘“Out of the country” - exw thV cwraV. (ego tes koras) - what preferences they (the demons) should have for one country over another is one of the mysteries connected with these stories of demoniacal possession. It can be explained only as part of the hallucination of the demoniac” (Gould, 91, Guelich, 281)
3. Jesus Deliverance of the Demoniac (v. 11-13)
a. Verse 11 – 13 – Now there on the hillside a great herd of swine was feeding; and the unclean spirits begged him, “send us into the swine, let us enter them.” So he gave them permission. And the unclean spirits came out and entered the swine; and the herd, numbering about two thousand, rushed down the steep bank into the sea, and were drowned in the sea.
(1) Pig Characteristics
“When the unclean spirit entered the pigs they became utterly “unpiglike”. Nothing is more certain than that pigs do not move as herds. They are very liable to panic, and then they scatter. The miracle in the story lay in the pig’s forming themselves up to two thousand strong, and rushing over the cliff.” (Duncan, 5)
(2) Evil Spirit Characteristics
“It was popular belief in the first century that evil spirits were not content to wander aimlessly about. They abhor a vacuum and want to inhabit something. A human is best, wanting that, a bunch of pigs will do” (Garland, 204).
(3) Morality issues – Jesus vs. Animal Protective Association
(a) Does Jesus care about animals?
“Why did Jesus, having exorcised the demons, allow them to enter the pigs, an act that ultimately resulted in the destruction of the entire herd? A tentative answer is that Jesus wanted to give tangible evidence to the man and to the people that the demons had actually left him and that their purpose had been to destroy him even as they destroyed the pigs” (Wessel, 658).
(b) A Jewish account
“Some have explained it as a “Jewish” story originally, as though this unintended slur made it more palatable for “Christian” readers. If, as has been suggested, this part of the story stems from a later expansion of an earlier exorcism story set in Gerasa, we only ignore the question by arguing that Jesus did not actually destroy someone’s herd of swine” (Guelich, 282-83).
B. Jesus and the Townspeople (v. 14-17)
1. Verse 14-15 – the swineherds ran off, and told it in the city and in the country. Then people came to see what it was that had happened. They came to Jesus, and saw the demoniac sitting there, clothed and in his right mind, the very man who had had the legion; and they were afraid.
a. Contrast in the narratives
“There is a contrast in the narratives of Matthew and Mark at this point. In Mark the dwellers in the countryside - agrouV (agrous) - come out to see the demoniac, whereas in Matthew Jesus is the center of attention” (Mann, 280)
b. Community reaction
“When the community arrives, they are not frightened by what has happened to the pigs but by seeing this man now clothed and in his right mind! They do not rejoice at his recovery but are afraid” (Garland, 205). Or perhaps “Their fear was no doubt caused by the presence of one with power to perform such a miracle” (Wessel, 658).
c. Were they also possessed?
“The crowd’s desire to be rid of Jesus, their discomfort in his presence, demonstrates that they too, are in fact demon possessed, subjected to a power or powers hostile to the Kingdom of God” (Williamson, 106)
2. verses 16-17 – Those who had seen what had happened to the demoniac and to the swine reported it. Then they began to beg Jesus to leave their neighborhood.
“This is the only case in our Lord’s ministry in which his miracles operated against him in this way, and it is to be accounted for by the strange element in this case, the mixture of gain and loss in the result” (Gould, 93). For them, Jesus was a dangerous person to have around the district.
C. Jesus and the Demoniac, conclusion (v. 18-20)
3. Verse 18-20 – As he was getting into the boat, the man who had been possessed by demons begged him that he might be with him. But Jesus refused, and said to him, “go home to your friends, and tell them how much the Lord has done for you, and what mercy he has shown you.” And he went away and began to proclaim in the Decapolis how much Jesus had done for him; and everyone was amazed.
a. Work done
“Although the exorcism story proper ends with the evidence that the man has been healed, this episode has been expanded to provide Jesus with his first Gentile missionary. Mark concludes the episode by presenting the man as a missionary in the cities of the Decapolis.” (Perkins, 584-85) “Haenchen (195) notes that Jesus leaves because his work is completed, not because he has been defeated by either the demons or by the people’s rejection of his ministry” (Guelich, 284).
b. Contrast of commands
“The command that Jesus gave is in marked in contrast to Jesus’ instructions to the cleansed leper in 1.44 – ‘See that you don’t tell this to anyone.’ This is probably because in the case of the demoniac Jesus was in Gentile territory where there would be little danger that popular messianic ideas about him might be circulated.” (Wessel, 659)
c. Decapolis (See also Social-Cultural Context in the beginning of this exegesis)
“The Decapolis was a league of ten originally free greek cities located (except Scythopolis) on the east of the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River. They had been organized on the Greek model during the Seleucid period, brought under Hasmonean control by John Hyrcanuns, and liberated by the Roman general Pompey” (Wessel, 659). “Josephus mentions it four times, but Pliny gives us our earliest list of the ten cities (Damascus, Philadelphia, Rapana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippo or Hippos, Dion, Pella, Galasa or Gerasa, Cantha)” (Guelich, 286).
d. Yahweh or Jesus?
(1) Lord as God
“kurioV (kurious) - Lord – The message Jesus gives him (demoniac) does not concern our Lord (Jesus) himself, but God, to whom kurios evidently refers” (Gould, 94).
(2) Lord as Jesus
“Undoubtedly ‘Lord’ in v. 19, kurios, means Yahweh. However, it was applied by early Christians to Jesus and this is what the ex-demoniac takes it to mean (v. 20)” (Bowman, 144).
(3) Lord as God and Jesus
“The change from Lord (verse 19) to Jesus (verse 20) serves to illumine the Marcan idea that in Jesus quit particularly and concretely the very grace and mercy of God are experienced” (Anderson, 150)
III – Conclusions
A. Christology
“Without any doubt, the passage in a whole has a single point: the amazing power of Jesus” (Williamson, 103). Jesus is the one who delivers humanity from the power of Satan. It is very clear that Jesus went to the other side of the sea with a specific purpose. His passage by that region was remarkable. He not only showed His love, care and power, but He also “prepared” and sent a missionary for that community. Even for those who went to Him, asking Him to leave; Jesus will always be remembered as the one who had power over the evil spirits and the one who destroyed the herd of swine. There was also another group of people in that district who, “were amazed” when they saw and heard the ex-demoniac speaking about the encounter that changed his life forever.
B. Conflict
As we can see above, there are many tensions within the passage. The correct location of the event, the number of possessed men, a command not obeyed, and the morality problem with the destruction of the herd of swine.
C. Implication
“The possessed man’s encounter with Jesus made him fully human again, with a family, a home, and a mission in life. He was no longer a beast whom people thought needed to be tamed, but a human being called to proclaim the explosion of God’s mercy in his life” (Garland, 212).
The real existence of evil forces is also another implication to be pointed out from this episode. Western society is becoming more and more unaware of demons and their power. What happens today is a tenebrous attraction to what is considered evil and dark (in a spiritual sense). The growing number of movies and books that exalt black magic, witchcraft, vampires, werewolves, demons and all kinds of evil beings has extremely increased in our age. Others - including Christians - are totally skeptical and do not believe at all in the existence of these forces.
Bibliography
Anderson, Hugh. The New Century Bible Commentary. Black, Matthew ed. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publ. Co., Grand Rapids, 1976.
Argenti, Cyrille. "Meditation on Mark 5:1-20." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 398-408.
Bowman, John, The New Christian Jewish Passover Haggadah. Boer, P. A. H. ed. Netherlands: Leiden E. J. Brill, 1965.
Derrett, J. Duncan M. "Contributions to the Study of the Gerasene Demoniac." Journal for the Study of the New Testament, no. 3 (Ap 1979): 2-17.
Garland, David E., The NIV Application Commentary: Mark. Muck, Terry ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.
Gould, Ezra P. Rev, The International Critical Commentary: Critical and Exegetical Commentary: The Gospel According to St. Mark. Driver, Samuel R., Alfred Plummer, and Charles A. Briggs ed. Edingurgh: T&T Clark Ltd, 1983.
Guelich, Robert A., Word Biblical Commentary. Hubbard, David A., and Glenn W. Barker ed. Dallas, Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1989.
Just, Felix. “Demons and Exorcisms in the Gospels.” 9 October 2005. Catholic Resources for Bilbe, Liturgy, and More. 01 February 2006
Kleist, James A. b. 1873. "The Gadarene Demoniacs." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 9, no. 1 (Ja 1947): 101-105.
Mann, C. S., The Anchor Bible Mark: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. first edition, Albright, William F., and David N. Freedman ed. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1986.
Marr, Andrew. Anglican Theological Review, fall 1998.
Perkins, Pheme. The New Interpreter's Bible. Keck, Leander E. ed. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.
Pesch, Rudolf. "Markan Version of the Healing of the Gerasene Demoniac." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 349-376.
Starobinski, Jean. "Essay in Literary Analysis: Mark 5:1-20." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 377-397.
Turlington, Henry E., The Broadman Bible Commentary. Allen, Clifton J. ed. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman Press, 1969.
Wessel, Walter, W., The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Gaebelein, Frank E. ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.
Williamson, Lamar, Jr. Interpretation, A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Mays, James Luther ed. Atlanta, Georgia: John Knox Press, 1983.
Wink, Water. Umasking the Powers the Invisible Forces that Determine Human Existence. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
__________________________
Rodrigo Serrao
February 03, 2006
(All Scripture references are taken from the New Revised Standard Version)
I - Introductory Matters
A. Biblical Context
1. Author:
a. Anonymous
“The second Gospel, like the other three, is anonymous. It does not even allude to authorship (Cf. Lk 1.1-4; Jo 21.24)” (Guelich, Intro, xxv).
b. Early Church Tradition
“There is a strong and clear early tradition that Mark was its author and that he was closely associated with the apostle Peter, from whom he obtained his information about Jesus” (Wessel, 605). “But who was Mark? The answer has generally been based on information from a lost five-volume work of Papias, the bishop of Hieropolis cited by Eusebius” (Ecclesiastical History 3.39.15):
“Traditionally, ‘Mark’ has been identified with the Mark of 1 Pet 5.13; Acts 12.12-25; 13.13; 15.37-39 and the Pauline corpus. He was ‘John Mark’”. (Guelich, Intro, xxviii).
2. OT Comparisons: Prophet Isaiah
a. “Isa. 65.1-15 contains what could be read by the church as an allusion to Jesus’ entering the Decapolis” (65.1).
b. “Those ‘who sit in tombs, and spend the night in secret places; who eat swine’s flesh’” (v. 4)
c. “who say, ‘Keep to yourself, do not come near me’” (v. 5).
d. “The LXX adds to v. 3b, ‘burning incense upon bricks to demons (tois daimoniois - tois daimonios) which have no existence” and to v. 11, “who set a table for the demon (to daimonion - to daimonion; Heb., “Fortune”)” (Wink’s endnotes, 183).
3. Exorcisms in the Gospels
a. Synoptic Gospels
(1) Man with Unclean Spirit in Synagogue at Capernaum
(Mark 1:23-28, Luke 4:33-37) (Just, catholic-resources.org)
(2) Beelzebul Controversy
(Mark 3:22-30, Matt 12:22:30, Luke 11:14-15) (Ibid.)
(3) Gerasene Demoniac
(Mark 5:1-20, Matt 8:28-34, Luke 8:26-39) (Ibid.)
(4) Syro-Phoenician Woman's Daughter
(Mark 7:24-30, Matt 15:21-28) (Ibid.)
(5) Boy with an Epileptic Spirit
(Mark 9:14-29, Matt 17:14-21, Luke 9:37-43a) (Ibid.)
(6) Another Exorcist
(Mark 9:38-41, Matt 10:42, Luke 9:49-50) (Ibid.)
b. Gospel of John
“There are no exorcism stories in the Gospel of John” (Ibid.).
4. Synoptic Comparisons
a. Matthew 8.28-34 – Matthew’s narrative of this passage calls the place where the event took place the country of the Gadarenes, instead of, Gerasenes as Mark and Luke do. Matthew’s narrative reports two demon possessed people. Mark and Luke only repot one. Also, Matthew’s account is shorter including only 6 verses, whereas, Mark’s account has 20 verses and Luke 13.
b. Luke 8.26-39 – Luke follows Mark’s narrative, omitting some information, for instance Mark’s verses 3-5.
B. Social-Cultural Context
1. The Decapolis: Home of Gentiles
“The social location of this passage is crucial. For this is Jesus’ first entry into the Decapolis, ten proud Greek cities founded or enlarged by Alexander the Great and his successors and settled with Macedonian veterans.” (Wink, 44)
2. Gerasa
“Boasted of a temple to Zeus Olympus (to whom pigs were sacrificed) and, from 22-23 C.E. on, a temple dedicated to the cult of Caesar. Pompey brought them under Roman control. Augustus awarded Gadara, Hippos, and Scythopolis to Herod; when the Gadarenes failed in their petition against Herod’s cruelty they suffered even more cruelty.” (Ibid.)
C. Literary Criticism: Features that raise questions on how many different authors
(Several features raise the question whether, despite the smooth flow of the narrative as a whole, more than one hand has shared in fashioning the story as we have it.)
1. Doublets and repetitions
“Verses 2 and 6 (Jesus meeting the demoniac), vv. 3 and 5 (the demoniac’s home in the tombs, vv. 10 and 12 (the request of the demon), vv. 14 and 16 (the swineherds’ account of the incident)” (Rudolf, 351)
2. Afterthoughts
“Verse 6 (the demoniac had seen Jesus from a distance), v. 8 (Jesus had ordered the demon to leave the man), v. 15c (the remainder that the demoniac had had the legion), v. 16b (the swine are mentioned as an afterthought)” (Ibid.).
3. Discrepancies
“Between v. 2 and 6 (Jesus met the demoniac immediately on leaving the boat/the demoniac saw Jesus from a distance and ran towards him)” (Ibid.).
4. Use of a different vocabulary
“Verse 2 mnhmeiwn(mnemeion), v. 3 and v. 5 mnhma (mnema), vv. 15 e 16 daimonizomenoV (daimonizomenos) and v. 18 daimonisqeiV (daimonistheis)” (Ibid.).
D. Different approaches
1. René Girard’s interpretation of the passage
René Girard is a famous French Philosopher, Historian and Philologist (those who study ancient texts and languages) who has approached the passage of the Gerasene demoniac in a totally unique manner. “According to René, the townspeople have a more deep relationship with the Demoniac. He argues that it is really possible to fashion chains too powerful for anyone to break. ‘The Gerasenes and their demons have for some time settled into some sort of cyclical pathology,” Girard writes” (Wink, 45). “In short, the possessed man had become a perpetual scapegoat for the community. It is curious that the swineherds asked Jesus to leave in response to a healing that supposedly, they wanted. Girard argues that the swineherds were actually angry over being deprived of their scapegoat” (Andrew, ATR, fall 1998). The townspeople need him to act out their own violence. “The possessed imitates the Gerasenes who stone their victims, but the Gerasenes also imitate their possessed. It is a relationship of doubles and mirrors that exist between persecuted and this persecuting persecuted individual. The relationship is one of mimetic antagonism” (Wink, 46).
2. Father Cyrille Argenti’s symbolic approach
Father Cyrille Argenti is a priest of the Greek Orthodox Church in Marseille. His views on Mark 5.1-20 have interesting meditation insights.
He says: “So you notice that before exorcising the evil spirits from the demoniac, he [Jesus] first calms the waves. And this reminds what takes place in the Orthodox ceremony of Baptism. Before christening the child or the adult, in other words, before freeing him from bondage to the enemy, we bless the water – a sign that Christ restores not only the fallen man but the whole fallen creation . . . First he [the demoniac] is in chain and fetters. When man falls under the power of the devil, he becomes a slave” (Argenti, 401). “He [St. John Chrysostom] mentions first who have become slaves of erotic passion. Passion makes a man loses his freedom. But, he stresses more another form of slavery. He speaks of avarice” (ibid, 402).
II - Exegesis Proper
A. Jesus and the Demoniac (v. 1-13)
1. Description of the Demoniac (v. 1-5)
a. Verse 1 – They came to the other side of the sea, to the country of the Gerasenes
“By its repetition of the preposition eiV, the Greek text draws attention to the two fold description of the location. It is firstly “the other side of the sea” (a purely geographical location), but it is also “the country of the Gerasenes” (an ethico-religious indication). Far from being accidental, this wealth of detail is extremely significant” (Starobinski, 382). Or perhaps “The very name ‘Gerasa’, which may be a fanciful allusion to the Hebrew grs, ‘to drive out, cast out, expel’” (Wink, 43).
(1) Place’s name controversy or dilemma
Gerashnwn - in Mark and Luke you read – Gerasenes - (30 miles from the shore)
Gadaphnwn - in Matthew the name of the place is – Gadara - (6 miles from the shore)
(2) A better option
“Gergeshnwn - the similarity of name indicates that it has been confused with the nearer Gergesa” (Gould, 87). “A ruin much nearer the shore and called Khersa has been discovered and may have been in the district subject to Gadara” (Turlington, 307). “Not far from this site there is a cliff within forty meters of the shore and some old tombs” (Wessel, 657).
b. Verse 2 – And when he had stepped out of the boat
(1) Chronological Tension
“Many interpreters have noted the chronological tension between this story, which transpires during the day, and the previous one, which occurs during the night” (Guelich, 277).
(2) No Tension
“This position is not held by Wessel: Since it was already evening (Cf. 4.35) when they started across the lake, by the time they reached the other side it was probably dark” (Wessel, 657).
c. Verse 2 continued – Immediately a man out of the tombs with an unclean spirit met him
“First of two encounters (Cf. 5.6)” (Guelich, 277). “Verse 6 clarifies the situation. The man actually saw Jesus from a distance and came running to him” (Wessel, 657)
d. Verses 3-5 – He lived among the tombs; and no one could restrain him any more, even with a chain; for he had often been restrained with shackles and chains, but the chains he wrenched apart, and the shackles he broke in pieces; and no one had the strength to subdue him. Night and day among the tombs and on the mountains he was always howling and bruising himself with stones.
(1) Markan Exclusivity
These verses are exclusive to Mark’s account of the passage.
(2) Why Cemeteries?
“Cemeteries were believed to be the abode of demons” (Anderson, 148)
(3) Characteristics of Madness
“Talmudic prescriptions provide four tests of madness: spending the night in a grave, tearing one’s clothes, walking around at night, and destroying anything given. All such signs are present in this case” (Mann, 278).
(4) Midrashic Development
“The break coupled with reference to the man’s dwelling and the presence of five hapax legomena may support the thesis that the verses represent a midrashic development of the tradition based on Isa 65.4-6 and Ps 67.7” (Guelich 277).
2. Demoniac’s Encounter with Jesus (v. 6-10)
a. Verse 6 – When he saw Jesus from a distance, he ran and bowed down before him;
(1) From a distance - apo makroqen (apo makrothen)
“This verse resumes and develops the action in 5.2 (Anderson, 148). It is possible that in this verse we find some slight evidence for the two narratives telescoped in Matthew. In this verse the story is resumed, but here the demoniac sees Jesus from a distance, while in v. 2 Jesus meets him as soon as he leaves the boat” (Mann, 278).
(2) The Demoniac’s Plea
“He must have supposed in his demented condition that by prostrating himself before Jesus, by asking him not to meddle with him, by identifying him as Jesus, Son of the Most High God, and by his plea in God’s name not to torment him, maybe Jesus would leave him alone” (Turlington, 308)
b. Verse 7 – And he shouted at the top of his voice, “what have you to do with me, Jesus, son of the Most High God? I adjure you by God, do not torment me.
(1) The Most High God
“The specific name “the Most High God” has particular relevance for this “gentile” setting, since it almost always occurs in the LXX on the lips or in the context of Gentiles” (Guelich, 279).
(2) Demoniac’s Intention
“Although his rushing up to prostate himself before Jesus suggests a gesture of worship appropriate to Jesus’ identity, the demoniac’s words reflect a desire to drive Jesus away that is characteristic of the exorcism genre” (Perkins, 583; Wessel, 657). “To keep the Son of God off their back – to protect themselves” (Garland, 204).
c. Verse 8 – For he had said to him, “come out of the man, you unclean spirit!" (1) Command not obeyed?
“Without doubt, the comment stands in awkward tension with what has gone before by implying a previous ineffectual command for the unclean spirit to come out of the man. Thus, Haenchen (192-3) attributes this to a redactor’s misunderstanding of 5.2-7” (Guelich, 280).
(2) Harmonizing the tension
“Jesus had been saying (the verb is imperfect) to the unclean spirit, Come out of the man. However, the deep distress of the man was not readily banished. So Jesus began asking him (again the verb is imperfect and implies some repetition), what is your name?” (Turlington, 308). “Was already saying - elegen (elegen) - This imperfect tense may be used as a pluperfect, ‘he had been saying’, or even in a Semitic sense of ‘command’, but we have attempted to suggest that Jesus was repeating the injunction – a simple command was insufficient, given the gravity of the case. In this view, the question in v. 9 is far more explicable” (Mann, 279)
d. Verse 9 – Then Jesus asked him, “What is your name?” he replied, “my name is legion; for we are many.”
(1) What’s in a name?
“Typically, this request for the name represents a ploy used by the exorcist in gaining control over the spirit”. (Guelich, 280)
(2) Origin
“There was the Hebrew word Ligyon from the Latin legion. It is possible that a Semitic word denoting host or legion has been translated by Mark into the nearest Latin word” (Ibid)
(3) Legion
“For we are many” - oti polloi esmen (oti polloi esmen) - makes clear that the ‘name’ primarily connoted a vast number rather than an identity by which the exorcist might gain control over the unclean spirit. (Ibid)
(4) Conclusion
“Whatever was the name, it signified a host of evil spirits which made their human host both homicidal and suicidal” (Bowman, 143-44). “Jesus does not confront just one unclean spirit but a whole body of Satan’s troops” (Williamson, 105).
e. Verse 10 – And he begged him earnestly not to send them out of the country.
‘“Out of the country” - exw thV cwraV. (ego tes koras) - what preferences they (the demons) should have for one country over another is one of the mysteries connected with these stories of demoniacal possession. It can be explained only as part of the hallucination of the demoniac” (Gould, 91, Guelich, 281)
3. Jesus Deliverance of the Demoniac (v. 11-13)
a. Verse 11 – 13 – Now there on the hillside a great herd of swine was feeding; and the unclean spirits begged him, “send us into the swine, let us enter them.” So he gave them permission. And the unclean spirits came out and entered the swine; and the herd, numbering about two thousand, rushed down the steep bank into the sea, and were drowned in the sea.
(1) Pig Characteristics
“When the unclean spirit entered the pigs they became utterly “unpiglike”. Nothing is more certain than that pigs do not move as herds. They are very liable to panic, and then they scatter. The miracle in the story lay in the pig’s forming themselves up to two thousand strong, and rushing over the cliff.” (Duncan, 5)
(2) Evil Spirit Characteristics
“It was popular belief in the first century that evil spirits were not content to wander aimlessly about. They abhor a vacuum and want to inhabit something. A human is best, wanting that, a bunch of pigs will do” (Garland, 204).
(3) Morality issues – Jesus vs. Animal Protective Association
(a) Does Jesus care about animals?
“Why did Jesus, having exorcised the demons, allow them to enter the pigs, an act that ultimately resulted in the destruction of the entire herd? A tentative answer is that Jesus wanted to give tangible evidence to the man and to the people that the demons had actually left him and that their purpose had been to destroy him even as they destroyed the pigs” (Wessel, 658).
(b) A Jewish account
“Some have explained it as a “Jewish” story originally, as though this unintended slur made it more palatable for “Christian” readers. If, as has been suggested, this part of the story stems from a later expansion of an earlier exorcism story set in Gerasa, we only ignore the question by arguing that Jesus did not actually destroy someone’s herd of swine” (Guelich, 282-83).
B. Jesus and the Townspeople (v. 14-17)
1. Verse 14-15 – the swineherds ran off, and told it in the city and in the country. Then people came to see what it was that had happened. They came to Jesus, and saw the demoniac sitting there, clothed and in his right mind, the very man who had had the legion; and they were afraid.
a. Contrast in the narratives
“There is a contrast in the narratives of Matthew and Mark at this point. In Mark the dwellers in the countryside - agrouV (agrous) - come out to see the demoniac, whereas in Matthew Jesus is the center of attention” (Mann, 280)
b. Community reaction
“When the community arrives, they are not frightened by what has happened to the pigs but by seeing this man now clothed and in his right mind! They do not rejoice at his recovery but are afraid” (Garland, 205). Or perhaps “Their fear was no doubt caused by the presence of one with power to perform such a miracle” (Wessel, 658).
c. Were they also possessed?
“The crowd’s desire to be rid of Jesus, their discomfort in his presence, demonstrates that they too, are in fact demon possessed, subjected to a power or powers hostile to the Kingdom of God” (Williamson, 106)
2. verses 16-17 – Those who had seen what had happened to the demoniac and to the swine reported it. Then they began to beg Jesus to leave their neighborhood.
“This is the only case in our Lord’s ministry in which his miracles operated against him in this way, and it is to be accounted for by the strange element in this case, the mixture of gain and loss in the result” (Gould, 93). For them, Jesus was a dangerous person to have around the district.
C. Jesus and the Demoniac, conclusion (v. 18-20)
3. Verse 18-20 – As he was getting into the boat, the man who had been possessed by demons begged him that he might be with him. But Jesus refused, and said to him, “go home to your friends, and tell them how much the Lord has done for you, and what mercy he has shown you.” And he went away and began to proclaim in the Decapolis how much Jesus had done for him; and everyone was amazed.
a. Work done
“Although the exorcism story proper ends with the evidence that the man has been healed, this episode has been expanded to provide Jesus with his first Gentile missionary. Mark concludes the episode by presenting the man as a missionary in the cities of the Decapolis.” (Perkins, 584-85) “Haenchen (195) notes that Jesus leaves because his work is completed, not because he has been defeated by either the demons or by the people’s rejection of his ministry” (Guelich, 284).
b. Contrast of commands
“The command that Jesus gave is in marked in contrast to Jesus’ instructions to the cleansed leper in 1.44 – ‘See that you don’t tell this to anyone.’ This is probably because in the case of the demoniac Jesus was in Gentile territory where there would be little danger that popular messianic ideas about him might be circulated.” (Wessel, 659)
c. Decapolis (See also Social-Cultural Context in the beginning of this exegesis)
“The Decapolis was a league of ten originally free greek cities located (except Scythopolis) on the east of the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River. They had been organized on the Greek model during the Seleucid period, brought under Hasmonean control by John Hyrcanuns, and liberated by the Roman general Pompey” (Wessel, 659). “Josephus mentions it four times, but Pliny gives us our earliest list of the ten cities (Damascus, Philadelphia, Rapana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippo or Hippos, Dion, Pella, Galasa or Gerasa, Cantha)” (Guelich, 286).
d. Yahweh or Jesus?
(1) Lord as God
“kurioV (kurious) - Lord – The message Jesus gives him (demoniac) does not concern our Lord (Jesus) himself, but God, to whom kurios evidently refers” (Gould, 94).
(2) Lord as Jesus
“Undoubtedly ‘Lord’ in v. 19, kurios, means Yahweh. However, it was applied by early Christians to Jesus and this is what the ex-demoniac takes it to mean (v. 20)” (Bowman, 144).
(3) Lord as God and Jesus
“The change from Lord (verse 19) to Jesus (verse 20) serves to illumine the Marcan idea that in Jesus quit particularly and concretely the very grace and mercy of God are experienced” (Anderson, 150)
III – Conclusions
A. Christology
“Without any doubt, the passage in a whole has a single point: the amazing power of Jesus” (Williamson, 103). Jesus is the one who delivers humanity from the power of Satan. It is very clear that Jesus went to the other side of the sea with a specific purpose. His passage by that region was remarkable. He not only showed His love, care and power, but He also “prepared” and sent a missionary for that community. Even for those who went to Him, asking Him to leave; Jesus will always be remembered as the one who had power over the evil spirits and the one who destroyed the herd of swine. There was also another group of people in that district who, “were amazed” when they saw and heard the ex-demoniac speaking about the encounter that changed his life forever.
B. Conflict
As we can see above, there are many tensions within the passage. The correct location of the event, the number of possessed men, a command not obeyed, and the morality problem with the destruction of the herd of swine.
C. Implication
“The possessed man’s encounter with Jesus made him fully human again, with a family, a home, and a mission in life. He was no longer a beast whom people thought needed to be tamed, but a human being called to proclaim the explosion of God’s mercy in his life” (Garland, 212).
The real existence of evil forces is also another implication to be pointed out from this episode. Western society is becoming more and more unaware of demons and their power. What happens today is a tenebrous attraction to what is considered evil and dark (in a spiritual sense). The growing number of movies and books that exalt black magic, witchcraft, vampires, werewolves, demons and all kinds of evil beings has extremely increased in our age. Others - including Christians - are totally skeptical and do not believe at all in the existence of these forces.
Bibliography
Anderson, Hugh. The New Century Bible Commentary. Black, Matthew ed. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publ. Co., Grand Rapids, 1976.
Argenti, Cyrille. "Meditation on Mark 5:1-20." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 398-408.
Bowman, John, The New Christian Jewish Passover Haggadah. Boer, P. A. H. ed. Netherlands: Leiden E. J. Brill, 1965.
Derrett, J. Duncan M. "Contributions to the Study of the Gerasene Demoniac." Journal for the Study of the New Testament, no. 3 (Ap 1979): 2-17.
Garland, David E., The NIV Application Commentary: Mark. Muck, Terry ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.
Gould, Ezra P. Rev, The International Critical Commentary: Critical and Exegetical Commentary: The Gospel According to St. Mark. Driver, Samuel R., Alfred Plummer, and Charles A. Briggs ed. Edingurgh: T&T Clark Ltd, 1983.
Guelich, Robert A., Word Biblical Commentary. Hubbard, David A., and Glenn W. Barker ed. Dallas, Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1989.
Just, Felix. “Demons and Exorcisms in the Gospels.” 9 October 2005. Catholic Resources for Bilbe, Liturgy, and More. 01 February 2006
Kleist, James A. b. 1873. "The Gadarene Demoniacs." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 9, no. 1 (Ja 1947): 101-105.
Mann, C. S., The Anchor Bible Mark: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. first edition, Albright, William F., and David N. Freedman ed. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1986.
Marr, Andrew. Anglican Theological Review, fall 1998.
Perkins, Pheme. The New Interpreter's Bible. Keck, Leander E. ed. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.
Pesch, Rudolf. "Markan Version of the Healing of the Gerasene Demoniac." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 349-376.
Starobinski, Jean. "Essay in Literary Analysis: Mark 5:1-20." Ecumenical Review 23 (O 1971): 377-397.
Turlington, Henry E., The Broadman Bible Commentary. Allen, Clifton J. ed. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman Press, 1969.
Wessel, Walter, W., The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Gaebelein, Frank E. ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.
Williamson, Lamar, Jr. Interpretation, A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Mays, James Luther ed. Atlanta, Georgia: John Knox Press, 1983.
Wink, Water. Umasking the Powers the Invisible Forces that Determine Human Existence. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
__________________________
Rodrigo Serrao
February 03, 2006
Monday, January 30, 2006
Um excelente texto do Ricardo Gondim
Minha cautela contra a soberba
Ricardo Gondim.
Vez por outra, sobressaltado, descubro que sou um terrível inimigo de mim mesmo. Assombrado, percebo que me recostei numa cama tecida de loiros, embriagado com o mosto barato de minhas parcas conquistas.
Noto como criei uma ansiedade messiânica de me convencer que minhas idéias eram definitivas; fiz uma leitura absolutizada da vida; percebi-me presenteado com uma fina sensibilidade para escutar a voz audível de Deus e ser seu profeta preferido.
Nesse torpor narcíseo, manejei os mecanismos de autocensura, buscando manter-me bem quisto dentro do sistema religioso. Consegui alienar-me da capacidade de questionar, antecipei o discurso preferido do grupo, e assim perdi minha verve criativa. Senti-me contente em repetir enfadonhamente o trabalho do pensar alheio. Aluguei minha consciência, esmagado pelo imperativo da sobrevivência. Depois, envaidecido, acabei vendendo minha alma como a prostituta faz com seu corpo.
E para maquiar esta condição patética, procurei conferir autoridade absoluta às minhas verdades, condenando os que não aceitaram cabrestos tão justos. Afoguei-me em pequenas poças d’água, defendi ortodoxias que nem sabia definir corretamente.
Aprendi a manter-me solidário às idéias mais que às pessoas. Entrincheirado nas plataformas da retórica, pronunciei conceitos e vociferei discursos invertebrados. Soube manter meu coração protegido das pessoas, entulhando minha mente com idéias renovadoras. Preferi esconder-me atrás de uma biblioteca e regurgitar frases de impacto a expor-me diante das pessoas que podiam ferir meu egoísmo.
Lamento que eu tenha me inspirado no que a religiosidade tinha para alimentar minha presunção. Fortaleci-me comendo esse pão mofado, mas desaprendi a chorar diante do grande drama humano; julguei precipitadamente os fracos e fui lento em dar espaço para que meu próximo vivesse suas contingências. Minha implacabilidade não passava de um recurso para esconder minhas crises espirituais.
Sem atinar que fé nasce da incerteza, tentei colocar minhas convicções espirituais nas categorias mais exatas. Vivi uma hipocrisia velada sem conseguir admitir meus dilemas e sem poder revelá-los. Eu temia que os religiosos me julgassem um fraco que perdeu sua alma.
Venho aprendendo a descansar na gratuidade do amor de Deus. Sinto que não preciso me provar para Ele e para ninguém.
Os traumas do que vivi nos corredores eclesiásticos são dolorosos; há muito que reaprender. Agora, pelo menos, percebo-me mais livre e menos rigoroso comigo e com o próximo. Ando mais consciente de que viver é tão complexo que posso contar com a paciência compreensiva de Deus enquanto celebro minha existência como marido, pai, irmão e amigo.
Soli Deo Gloria.
Ricardo Gondim.
Vez por outra, sobressaltado, descubro que sou um terrível inimigo de mim mesmo. Assombrado, percebo que me recostei numa cama tecida de loiros, embriagado com o mosto barato de minhas parcas conquistas.
Noto como criei uma ansiedade messiânica de me convencer que minhas idéias eram definitivas; fiz uma leitura absolutizada da vida; percebi-me presenteado com uma fina sensibilidade para escutar a voz audível de Deus e ser seu profeta preferido.
Nesse torpor narcíseo, manejei os mecanismos de autocensura, buscando manter-me bem quisto dentro do sistema religioso. Consegui alienar-me da capacidade de questionar, antecipei o discurso preferido do grupo, e assim perdi minha verve criativa. Senti-me contente em repetir enfadonhamente o trabalho do pensar alheio. Aluguei minha consciência, esmagado pelo imperativo da sobrevivência. Depois, envaidecido, acabei vendendo minha alma como a prostituta faz com seu corpo.
E para maquiar esta condição patética, procurei conferir autoridade absoluta às minhas verdades, condenando os que não aceitaram cabrestos tão justos. Afoguei-me em pequenas poças d’água, defendi ortodoxias que nem sabia definir corretamente.
Aprendi a manter-me solidário às idéias mais que às pessoas. Entrincheirado nas plataformas da retórica, pronunciei conceitos e vociferei discursos invertebrados. Soube manter meu coração protegido das pessoas, entulhando minha mente com idéias renovadoras. Preferi esconder-me atrás de uma biblioteca e regurgitar frases de impacto a expor-me diante das pessoas que podiam ferir meu egoísmo.
Lamento que eu tenha me inspirado no que a religiosidade tinha para alimentar minha presunção. Fortaleci-me comendo esse pão mofado, mas desaprendi a chorar diante do grande drama humano; julguei precipitadamente os fracos e fui lento em dar espaço para que meu próximo vivesse suas contingências. Minha implacabilidade não passava de um recurso para esconder minhas crises espirituais.
Sem atinar que fé nasce da incerteza, tentei colocar minhas convicções espirituais nas categorias mais exatas. Vivi uma hipocrisia velada sem conseguir admitir meus dilemas e sem poder revelá-los. Eu temia que os religiosos me julgassem um fraco que perdeu sua alma.
Venho aprendendo a descansar na gratuidade do amor de Deus. Sinto que não preciso me provar para Ele e para ninguém.
Os traumas do que vivi nos corredores eclesiásticos são dolorosos; há muito que reaprender. Agora, pelo menos, percebo-me mais livre e menos rigoroso comigo e com o próximo. Ando mais consciente de que viver é tão complexo que posso contar com a paciência compreensiva de Deus enquanto celebro minha existência como marido, pai, irmão e amigo.
Soli Deo Gloria.
Wednesday, January 25, 2006
Book Review: Inspiration and Authority: Nature and Function of Christian Scripture
This book can really change the manner one looks to the Bible. The issue of inspiration and authority of Scripture comes from long ago and it does not seem that the Church is moving towards a consensus. The topic approached in this book will be debated probably until the second coming of Jesus.
Achtemeier’s technique to move among conservatives and liberals is done really skillfully. He digs up concepts and views of both sides and brings to discussion the major questions regarding the debated topic. For instance, there are two sessions pointing out strengths and weaknesses of each position, although, he always looks for an intermediate position.
The real existence of God for conservatives, according to Achtemeier, will always depend on the inerrancy of Scripture. One of the main arguments of Achtemeier’s response to the conservative position is that faith can still exist, even if the Bible contains error. A vital observation made by the author is related to the definition of the word error. This is crucial for a better understanding of the contradictions of the Bible. For him, when an error occurs, what has to be taken into consideration is the nature of this error – whether practiced intentionally or as an assumption (even mistakenly) of what was believed by the person to be the truth.
The author mentions that the presupposition with which one may approach the Bible, will determine his/her position as either conservative or liberal. He says on page 66 that “the difference lies in the kind of constructs that are created to account for the present shape of Scripture”.
Then he moves toward Scripture formation. His approach is different than most books that talk about how Scripture was formed, especially in the omission of the historical context. Differently though, Achtemeier applies the concept of interpretation development within history. For him “All of our biblical texts are the product of interpretation of the will of God as that is illumined in a new time by earlier traditions” (page 76). A more historical approach will come into view later on in the book, especially with the argument about the problem of association of the inspiration model with the prophetic model and also in the topic that talks about the Canon formation.
Achtemeir’s longing to get as close as possible to the truth about inspiration, takes him to looking for some hints in Scripture. His search will be towards what the Bible talks about itself. His first notice is that the Bible does not talk too much about itself, although there are some passages that are clearly about inspiration. Unfortunately, these passages are pretty much misinterpreted by fundamentalists in order to support some distorted ideas. He picks 2 Timothy 3.6 and the interpretation shows that the passage relates to the Old Testament and that it has its focus only on religious matters, such as “teaching, reproof, correction and training in righteousness” (page 94). Not even salvation was part of the intention of the author of that specific pastoral letter. The second analyzed passage is 2 Peter 1.20, 21. Here again, its interpretation is quite different from what we are used to. Peter - or whoever is the author is – is talking about the origin of prophecy, instead of the way prophecies are to be interpreted, having “little to say directly about the inspiration of Scripture” (page 96). The last picked passage still in the New Testament is found in John 10.35. In this passage “Jesus simply recalls to his Jewish opponents something they all believed and it was that Scriptures could not be nullified if they intended to remain faithful to God” (page 97).
Perhaps, one of the most important thoughts of the book is found in the portion that talks about the Scripture and community of faith. Here, Achtemeier sort of transfers the progression of inspiration from the Bible to the community. He states that “if Scripture is to be understood as inspired, then that inspiration will have to be understood equally in terms of the community that produced those Scripture” (page 103). For Achtemeier, inspiration has more to do with community than with the individual. Certainly this idea is not very common and would probably be rejected among conservatives. For instance, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, does not even mention the word community in its nineteen articles on Biblical Inerrancy and its other twenty five articles on Biblical Hermeneutics.
Even though Achtemeier’s position of inspiration is an attempt to convey the discussion to a balance, some doubts and questions about it can also be raised. For example, if the community of faith can be “the cause” of inspiration of Scripture, my question though is who can correctly interpret the Bible, only the community or any person who seriously gets involved in the task of interpretation? The author gives some insights that sort of answer the questions raised above when he is talking about the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit within the person and community. On page 125, he says “if the Spirit that bears witness to the reader of Scripture is the same Spirit who was at work in the production of the Scripture, then the witness of the two will correspond and reinforce one another”. In other words, what he is saying is that the person who has the Holy Spirit, will have a better understanding and a better interpretation of Scripture than those who do not have the Holy Spirit. For him, “the interpreter cannot be isolated from the community of faith” (page 131).
After a deep analysis of the matter of inspiration of the Bible, the author moves toward the subject of authority. For him, the matter of authority lies in God Himself. Achtemeier argues that if authority of Scripture comes from its content, so it cannot be derived from the community, from the institution (church), from the hypothetical Q source, from the “real Jesus”, a “corrected” form from the false one pictured by the church, or even from any experience that comes from the reading of the content of Scripture. Rather the authority of Scripture “lies beyond the text itself, and inheres in the God to whom Scripture points” (page 147).
Again, the author mentions that only through divine power, characterized by the person of the Holy Spirit, can one experience how Scripture authority functions. He says, “Apart from the power of the Holy Spirit Scripture lies dumb at best, or is used in a misleading way at worst” (page 147).
He then comes to a point where anyone who reflects upon the truth of Scripture can escape faith. Faith is essential for the discussion and is an “action” that one needs to take whether he wants to believe in the Bible as the Word of God. Achtemeier closes his book explaining how authority of the Bible is “inextricably tied” to the hermeneutical function of the canon. According to him, the hermeneutical function of the canon could be understood as a boundary marker. It is something like a limit that you cannot go over, and if you go, you risk abandoning the legitimate understanding of the Christian faith. A good biblical illustration would be the passage where John warns the readers to test the spirits. Those who confess that Jesus truly came in flesh can be trusted, but those who do not confess, must be ignored. He says, “In this instance, the incarnation functions as the rule (the meaning of the Greek word kanon) for the faith of the church” (page 154).
Rodrigo Serrao
Achtemeier’s technique to move among conservatives and liberals is done really skillfully. He digs up concepts and views of both sides and brings to discussion the major questions regarding the debated topic. For instance, there are two sessions pointing out strengths and weaknesses of each position, although, he always looks for an intermediate position.
The real existence of God for conservatives, according to Achtemeier, will always depend on the inerrancy of Scripture. One of the main arguments of Achtemeier’s response to the conservative position is that faith can still exist, even if the Bible contains error. A vital observation made by the author is related to the definition of the word error. This is crucial for a better understanding of the contradictions of the Bible. For him, when an error occurs, what has to be taken into consideration is the nature of this error – whether practiced intentionally or as an assumption (even mistakenly) of what was believed by the person to be the truth.
The author mentions that the presupposition with which one may approach the Bible, will determine his/her position as either conservative or liberal. He says on page 66 that “the difference lies in the kind of constructs that are created to account for the present shape of Scripture”.
Then he moves toward Scripture formation. His approach is different than most books that talk about how Scripture was formed, especially in the omission of the historical context. Differently though, Achtemeier applies the concept of interpretation development within history. For him “All of our biblical texts are the product of interpretation of the will of God as that is illumined in a new time by earlier traditions” (page 76). A more historical approach will come into view later on in the book, especially with the argument about the problem of association of the inspiration model with the prophetic model and also in the topic that talks about the Canon formation.
Achtemeir’s longing to get as close as possible to the truth about inspiration, takes him to looking for some hints in Scripture. His search will be towards what the Bible talks about itself. His first notice is that the Bible does not talk too much about itself, although there are some passages that are clearly about inspiration. Unfortunately, these passages are pretty much misinterpreted by fundamentalists in order to support some distorted ideas. He picks 2 Timothy 3.6 and the interpretation shows that the passage relates to the Old Testament and that it has its focus only on religious matters, such as “teaching, reproof, correction and training in righteousness” (page 94). Not even salvation was part of the intention of the author of that specific pastoral letter. The second analyzed passage is 2 Peter 1.20, 21. Here again, its interpretation is quite different from what we are used to. Peter - or whoever is the author is – is talking about the origin of prophecy, instead of the way prophecies are to be interpreted, having “little to say directly about the inspiration of Scripture” (page 96). The last picked passage still in the New Testament is found in John 10.35. In this passage “Jesus simply recalls to his Jewish opponents something they all believed and it was that Scriptures could not be nullified if they intended to remain faithful to God” (page 97).
Perhaps, one of the most important thoughts of the book is found in the portion that talks about the Scripture and community of faith. Here, Achtemeier sort of transfers the progression of inspiration from the Bible to the community. He states that “if Scripture is to be understood as inspired, then that inspiration will have to be understood equally in terms of the community that produced those Scripture” (page 103). For Achtemeier, inspiration has more to do with community than with the individual. Certainly this idea is not very common and would probably be rejected among conservatives. For instance, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, does not even mention the word community in its nineteen articles on Biblical Inerrancy and its other twenty five articles on Biblical Hermeneutics.
Even though Achtemeier’s position of inspiration is an attempt to convey the discussion to a balance, some doubts and questions about it can also be raised. For example, if the community of faith can be “the cause” of inspiration of Scripture, my question though is who can correctly interpret the Bible, only the community or any person who seriously gets involved in the task of interpretation? The author gives some insights that sort of answer the questions raised above when he is talking about the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit within the person and community. On page 125, he says “if the Spirit that bears witness to the reader of Scripture is the same Spirit who was at work in the production of the Scripture, then the witness of the two will correspond and reinforce one another”. In other words, what he is saying is that the person who has the Holy Spirit, will have a better understanding and a better interpretation of Scripture than those who do not have the Holy Spirit. For him, “the interpreter cannot be isolated from the community of faith” (page 131).
After a deep analysis of the matter of inspiration of the Bible, the author moves toward the subject of authority. For him, the matter of authority lies in God Himself. Achtemeier argues that if authority of Scripture comes from its content, so it cannot be derived from the community, from the institution (church), from the hypothetical Q source, from the “real Jesus”, a “corrected” form from the false one pictured by the church, or even from any experience that comes from the reading of the content of Scripture. Rather the authority of Scripture “lies beyond the text itself, and inheres in the God to whom Scripture points” (page 147).
Again, the author mentions that only through divine power, characterized by the person of the Holy Spirit, can one experience how Scripture authority functions. He says, “Apart from the power of the Holy Spirit Scripture lies dumb at best, or is used in a misleading way at worst” (page 147).
He then comes to a point where anyone who reflects upon the truth of Scripture can escape faith. Faith is essential for the discussion and is an “action” that one needs to take whether he wants to believe in the Bible as the Word of God. Achtemeier closes his book explaining how authority of the Bible is “inextricably tied” to the hermeneutical function of the canon. According to him, the hermeneutical function of the canon could be understood as a boundary marker. It is something like a limit that you cannot go over, and if you go, you risk abandoning the legitimate understanding of the Christian faith. A good biblical illustration would be the passage where John warns the readers to test the spirits. Those who confess that Jesus truly came in flesh can be trusted, but those who do not confess, must be ignored. He says, “In this instance, the incarnation functions as the rule (the meaning of the Greek word kanon) for the faith of the church” (page 154).
Rodrigo Serrao
Saturday, January 07, 2006
Breve estudo no Salmo 51
1. Leia Salmo 51.1-17. Que sentimentos o pecado de Davi produziu nele?
Tristeza, culpa, angustia, remorso e arrependimento.
2. O que Davi pede especificamente que Deus faça por ele (vs. 1-9)?
Pede por misericórdia;
Para que o Senhor apague as transgressões;
Para lavar da culpa;
Para purificar do pecado, purificar com hissopo;
Pede para ouvir júbilo e alegria;
Para Deus esconder o rosto dos pecados e apagar as transgressões.
3. O que esses pedidos revelam quanto aos efeitos do pecado sobre nós?
A ira de Deus;
Transgressão;
Sentimento de culpa;
Perda da alegria;
Deus não suporta o pecado.
4. O que Davi sabe sobre Deus que lhe dá esperança (vv. 1-6)?
Deus é misercordioso; amoroso.
Deus é cuidadoso;
Deus é justo;
Deus é santo, puro;
Deus nos sonda e nos conhece;
Deus é sábio.
5. Davi repetidamente aceita a plena responsabilidade por “meu pecado”, recusando-se a acusar outras pessoas ou circunstâncias. O que ele entende sobre sua natureza pecaminosa, bem como sobre seus atos pecaminosos. (vv. 5,6)?
Davi entende que a fonte do pecado estava em seu coração, e não em suas atitudes. Apesar de outros haverem sido atingidos por seu pecado, Davi reconhece que em última análise isso veio de sua rebelião contra Deus. Desde o início de sua existência, Davi fez parte da pecaminosidade humana. Os versículos não ensinam que a concepção é pecado ou que Davi era filho ilegítimo. O versículo 5 não é uma desculpa para seu pecado, mas comprovação de que procedeu de sua natureza pecaminosa.
6. Davi quer mais do que perdão ou cancelamento da dívida. O que seus pedidos nos versículos 10-12 revelam sobre o relacionamento que Davi quer ter com Deus?
Dos versículos 1-9, Davi havia pedido perdão pelo seu pecado. A partir do verso 10, Davi inicia uma série de petições por transformação interior, ou seja, para que partindo do seu mais íntimo ser, ele possa crescer em maturidade espiritual para com Deus. Davi sabia que o pecado cometido havia tirado dele o gozo de sua salvação, portanto, os seus pedidos são para que haja renovação de júbilo por pertencer a Deus.
7. O que Davi promete fazer em consequência do perdão de Deus (vv. 13-17)?
Davi passa a verbalizar as suas atitudes em relação ao agir do Senhor. Ele diz que:
· Ensinará os caminhos de Deus aos transgressores (vs 13);
· A sua língua aclamará a justiça do Senhor (vs 14);
· A sua boca anunciará o louvor do Senhor (vs 15);
· Fará o que agrada a Deus, a saber, ter um espírito quebrantado e um coração quebrantado e contrito (vv 16-17).
8. Por que o espírito contrito e o coração quebrantado são sacrifícios que Deus não despreza (vv. 16, 17)?
Davi conhecia o sistema de sacrifícios e holocaustos da Lei do Antigo Testamento para se oferecer por conta dos pecados cometidos. Pela intimidade que ele tinha com Deus, ele entendia que este sistema não mudava em nada a pessoa que oferecia o sacrifício. Davi sabia que para Deus a obediência valia mais que o sacrifício de animais e que coração contrito e quebrantado revelava o genuíno arrependimento, coisa que o sacrifício de animais não promovia.
Obs:
Perguntas tiradas da Série Discipulado – Oração Eficaz.
Rodrigo Serrão
Tristeza, culpa, angustia, remorso e arrependimento.
2. O que Davi pede especificamente que Deus faça por ele (vs. 1-9)?
Pede por misericórdia;
Para que o Senhor apague as transgressões;
Para lavar da culpa;
Para purificar do pecado, purificar com hissopo;
Pede para ouvir júbilo e alegria;
Para Deus esconder o rosto dos pecados e apagar as transgressões.
3. O que esses pedidos revelam quanto aos efeitos do pecado sobre nós?
A ira de Deus;
Transgressão;
Sentimento de culpa;
Perda da alegria;
Deus não suporta o pecado.
4. O que Davi sabe sobre Deus que lhe dá esperança (vv. 1-6)?
Deus é misercordioso; amoroso.
Deus é cuidadoso;
Deus é justo;
Deus é santo, puro;
Deus nos sonda e nos conhece;
Deus é sábio.
5. Davi repetidamente aceita a plena responsabilidade por “meu pecado”, recusando-se a acusar outras pessoas ou circunstâncias. O que ele entende sobre sua natureza pecaminosa, bem como sobre seus atos pecaminosos. (vv. 5,6)?
Davi entende que a fonte do pecado estava em seu coração, e não em suas atitudes. Apesar de outros haverem sido atingidos por seu pecado, Davi reconhece que em última análise isso veio de sua rebelião contra Deus. Desde o início de sua existência, Davi fez parte da pecaminosidade humana. Os versículos não ensinam que a concepção é pecado ou que Davi era filho ilegítimo. O versículo 5 não é uma desculpa para seu pecado, mas comprovação de que procedeu de sua natureza pecaminosa.
6. Davi quer mais do que perdão ou cancelamento da dívida. O que seus pedidos nos versículos 10-12 revelam sobre o relacionamento que Davi quer ter com Deus?
Dos versículos 1-9, Davi havia pedido perdão pelo seu pecado. A partir do verso 10, Davi inicia uma série de petições por transformação interior, ou seja, para que partindo do seu mais íntimo ser, ele possa crescer em maturidade espiritual para com Deus. Davi sabia que o pecado cometido havia tirado dele o gozo de sua salvação, portanto, os seus pedidos são para que haja renovação de júbilo por pertencer a Deus.
7. O que Davi promete fazer em consequência do perdão de Deus (vv. 13-17)?
Davi passa a verbalizar as suas atitudes em relação ao agir do Senhor. Ele diz que:
· Ensinará os caminhos de Deus aos transgressores (vs 13);
· A sua língua aclamará a justiça do Senhor (vs 14);
· A sua boca anunciará o louvor do Senhor (vs 15);
· Fará o que agrada a Deus, a saber, ter um espírito quebrantado e um coração quebrantado e contrito (vv 16-17).
8. Por que o espírito contrito e o coração quebrantado são sacrifícios que Deus não despreza (vv. 16, 17)?
Davi conhecia o sistema de sacrifícios e holocaustos da Lei do Antigo Testamento para se oferecer por conta dos pecados cometidos. Pela intimidade que ele tinha com Deus, ele entendia que este sistema não mudava em nada a pessoa que oferecia o sacrifício. Davi sabia que para Deus a obediência valia mais que o sacrifício de animais e que coração contrito e quebrantado revelava o genuíno arrependimento, coisa que o sacrifício de animais não promovia.
Obs:
Perguntas tiradas da Série Discipulado – Oração Eficaz.
Rodrigo Serrão
Saturday, December 31, 2005
Reflexão de fim de ano
Já dizia o “filósofo” Cazuza – O tempo não para! E ele estava certo, pois mais um ano se finda e é tempo de reflexão.
Devemos refletir em dois contextos:
1) Em termos amplos – ou seja, qual o contexto maior em que estamos incluídos? A sociedade, a igreja, o trabalho e a família.
2) Em termos restritos – ou seja, o que eu (indivíduo) tenho feito para melhorar a vida do meu próximo e a minha mesma?
De forma ampla, devemos entender a filosofia de nossa época. Vivemos em um mundo pós-moderno e também pós-cristão. À medida que o tempo passa, as pessoas vão se tornando mais aversas à Palavra de Deus, e a Jesus Cristo (inclusive os cristãos).
O que eu acho interessante é ver algumas igrejas “triunfalistas” pregarem um avivamento da igreja nos últimos tempos, quando a Bíblia nos fala de uma apostasia no final dos tempos.
Uma característica da pós-modernidade é justamente o pluralismo. E o pluralismo será o responsável por pouco a pouco afastar Jesus da vida das pessoas.
Um bom exemplo para isso é período de Natal. Cumprimentar alguém com um “Feliz Natal”, poderá ser uma ofensa, pois Natal se refere ao nascimento de Jesus e nem todos são cristãos. Portanto, para sermos politicamente corretos, apenas cumprimentamos com um “Boas Festas” ou apenas um “Feliz Feriado”.
Isto é consequência do pensamento filosófico, influenciando a mente da sociedade. E agindo assim, vamos pouco a pouco esquencendo ou ignorando Jesus em nossas vidas.
Porém, isto seria um erro terrível.
Quanto mais abrirmos mão da presença de Jesus, para sermos politicamente corretos, mais e mais estaremos negando ao próprio Jesus Cristo.
A Bíblia é clara em nos alertar que o amor de muitos se esfriará (Mt 24.12)
Em Timóteo 3, o apóstolo Paulo nos dá um lista bem extensa de como se comportarão os homens nos úlitmos dias.
Os últimos tempos vem desde o dia de Pentecostes, porém a medida que o homem esquece de seu Criador e do seu Salvador, vamos tendo a sensação que de fato, a humanindade caminha para o seu apocalipse.
Olhando desta perspectiva, alguém pode perguntar, - O que eu tenho com tudo isso?
E de fato, quando apenas observamos amplamente, o homem como indivíduo não pode ajudar muito.
É por isso que devemos também reflexionar sobre a nossa vida, em termos individuais.
A reflexão individual é justamente para saber onde eu me encaixo nesta mundança de pensamento social, como estou sendo influenciado, e o que tenho feito.
Nada que tomou proporções grandes, já começa grande. Por isso, um pensamento filosófico social que tem por interesse apagar ou diminuir a presença de valores cristãos e de Jesus na vida dos homens, só terá lugar em nossas vidas, se cada pessoa como um indivíduo, deixar-se influenciar, e a partir desta influência, passar a influenciar outros.
O que você crer, determinará como você vive.
Portanto, existem coisas que como indivíduos que crêem em Cristo, devemos resgatar, para que os ventos gelados da pós modernindade não nos invadam.
O Evangelho é simple e a verdadeira espiritualidade está na oração e na leitura da Bíblia. A importância deste resgate se dá no sentido de buscarmos um culto racional e centrado na Bíblia. Quanto mais em comunhão estivermos com Deus (pelo entendimento de Sua Palavra e pela oração sincera), mais espiritualmente fortes estaremos e mais fácil será para nós rejeitarmos doutrinas e práticas anti-bíblicas, mesmo que sejam em nome de Jesus.
O Evangelho é prática mútua de amor. Ações de amor para com o próximo falará mais alto do que muitas palavras soltas ao vento. Jesus disse que quando amássemos uns aos outros, mostraríamos ao mundo que somos discípulos dEle. A importância deste resgate, é para que não fiquemos parados em nossas zonas de conforto, enquanto o restante do mundo ao nosso redor perece. A sociedade em geral é egocêntrica e hedonista, ou seja, extremamente individualista e vivem apenas para busca do prazer. A prática do amor fará com que tiremos os olhos dos nossos próprios umbigos e fará também com que lutemos contra a frieza que vem disfarçada de piedade, que ao invés de nos levar a amar o próximo, nos conduz a um fundamentalismo arrogante e cheio de julgamentos. Amor tem que ser prático e não apenas de palavras.
O Evangelho é o próprio Jesus Cristo. Ele disse que Ele era a Palavra encarnada. O verbo de Deus que se fez carne. Ao resgatar o entendimento de que Jesus é a própria Palavra, iremos entender que quando a lemos, é o próprio Deus falando conosco. Isto nos fará ver que Jesus é a razão da vida e que sem Ele, a vida perde a sua poesia, o seu valor, a sua graça. Pois sem Jesus, não haveria evangelho e nem nada que se há.
Toda a revolução começa individualmente, e nos corações daqueles que querem ver o mundo um lugar melhor para se viver.
Proponho que neste anos de 2006, possamos buscar viver uma vida autêntica, sem máscaras, sem falsa piedade, sem hipocrisia. Uma vida que entende a Graça de Jesus e por ela quer viver.
Uma vida que tem em Jesus a sua razão, e por mais que haja uma pressão social para tirá-lo dos nossos corações, isto seja impossível, pois Ele já faz parte do nosso ser.
Que Deus nos abençoe!
Rodrigo Serrão
Devemos refletir em dois contextos:
1) Em termos amplos – ou seja, qual o contexto maior em que estamos incluídos? A sociedade, a igreja, o trabalho e a família.
2) Em termos restritos – ou seja, o que eu (indivíduo) tenho feito para melhorar a vida do meu próximo e a minha mesma?
De forma ampla, devemos entender a filosofia de nossa época. Vivemos em um mundo pós-moderno e também pós-cristão. À medida que o tempo passa, as pessoas vão se tornando mais aversas à Palavra de Deus, e a Jesus Cristo (inclusive os cristãos).
O que eu acho interessante é ver algumas igrejas “triunfalistas” pregarem um avivamento da igreja nos últimos tempos, quando a Bíblia nos fala de uma apostasia no final dos tempos.
Uma característica da pós-modernidade é justamente o pluralismo. E o pluralismo será o responsável por pouco a pouco afastar Jesus da vida das pessoas.
Um bom exemplo para isso é período de Natal. Cumprimentar alguém com um “Feliz Natal”, poderá ser uma ofensa, pois Natal se refere ao nascimento de Jesus e nem todos são cristãos. Portanto, para sermos politicamente corretos, apenas cumprimentamos com um “Boas Festas” ou apenas um “Feliz Feriado”.
Isto é consequência do pensamento filosófico, influenciando a mente da sociedade. E agindo assim, vamos pouco a pouco esquencendo ou ignorando Jesus em nossas vidas.
Porém, isto seria um erro terrível.
Quanto mais abrirmos mão da presença de Jesus, para sermos politicamente corretos, mais e mais estaremos negando ao próprio Jesus Cristo.
A Bíblia é clara em nos alertar que o amor de muitos se esfriará (Mt 24.12)
Em Timóteo 3, o apóstolo Paulo nos dá um lista bem extensa de como se comportarão os homens nos úlitmos dias.
Os últimos tempos vem desde o dia de Pentecostes, porém a medida que o homem esquece de seu Criador e do seu Salvador, vamos tendo a sensação que de fato, a humanindade caminha para o seu apocalipse.
Olhando desta perspectiva, alguém pode perguntar, - O que eu tenho com tudo isso?
E de fato, quando apenas observamos amplamente, o homem como indivíduo não pode ajudar muito.
É por isso que devemos também reflexionar sobre a nossa vida, em termos individuais.
A reflexão individual é justamente para saber onde eu me encaixo nesta mundança de pensamento social, como estou sendo influenciado, e o que tenho feito.
Nada que tomou proporções grandes, já começa grande. Por isso, um pensamento filosófico social que tem por interesse apagar ou diminuir a presença de valores cristãos e de Jesus na vida dos homens, só terá lugar em nossas vidas, se cada pessoa como um indivíduo, deixar-se influenciar, e a partir desta influência, passar a influenciar outros.
O que você crer, determinará como você vive.
Portanto, existem coisas que como indivíduos que crêem em Cristo, devemos resgatar, para que os ventos gelados da pós modernindade não nos invadam.
O Evangelho é simple e a verdadeira espiritualidade está na oração e na leitura da Bíblia. A importância deste resgate se dá no sentido de buscarmos um culto racional e centrado na Bíblia. Quanto mais em comunhão estivermos com Deus (pelo entendimento de Sua Palavra e pela oração sincera), mais espiritualmente fortes estaremos e mais fácil será para nós rejeitarmos doutrinas e práticas anti-bíblicas, mesmo que sejam em nome de Jesus.
O Evangelho é prática mútua de amor. Ações de amor para com o próximo falará mais alto do que muitas palavras soltas ao vento. Jesus disse que quando amássemos uns aos outros, mostraríamos ao mundo que somos discípulos dEle. A importância deste resgate, é para que não fiquemos parados em nossas zonas de conforto, enquanto o restante do mundo ao nosso redor perece. A sociedade em geral é egocêntrica e hedonista, ou seja, extremamente individualista e vivem apenas para busca do prazer. A prática do amor fará com que tiremos os olhos dos nossos próprios umbigos e fará também com que lutemos contra a frieza que vem disfarçada de piedade, que ao invés de nos levar a amar o próximo, nos conduz a um fundamentalismo arrogante e cheio de julgamentos. Amor tem que ser prático e não apenas de palavras.
O Evangelho é o próprio Jesus Cristo. Ele disse que Ele era a Palavra encarnada. O verbo de Deus que se fez carne. Ao resgatar o entendimento de que Jesus é a própria Palavra, iremos entender que quando a lemos, é o próprio Deus falando conosco. Isto nos fará ver que Jesus é a razão da vida e que sem Ele, a vida perde a sua poesia, o seu valor, a sua graça. Pois sem Jesus, não haveria evangelho e nem nada que se há.
Toda a revolução começa individualmente, e nos corações daqueles que querem ver o mundo um lugar melhor para se viver.
Proponho que neste anos de 2006, possamos buscar viver uma vida autêntica, sem máscaras, sem falsa piedade, sem hipocrisia. Uma vida que entende a Graça de Jesus e por ela quer viver.
Uma vida que tem em Jesus a sua razão, e por mais que haja uma pressão social para tirá-lo dos nossos corações, isto seja impossível, pois Ele já faz parte do nosso ser.
Que Deus nos abençoe!
Rodrigo Serrão
Saturday, December 10, 2005
Church History "Final Exam"
Answers for church history final
What/who is and historical importance
Holy Club
It was a club formed by Charles Wesley, Robert Kirkham and William Morgan in the spring of 1729. In November of the same year, John Wesley became the leader of that group, which soon attracted other students. This club was called later the “Methodist”.
John Carroll
John Carroll was the bishop of Baltimore in England. He helped the growth of Catholicism in United States. He was founder of Georgetown University. By the time of Carroll’s death, the foundations of Catholicism in USA were well established, and the priesthood numbered more than one hundred.
Quest for the historical Jesus
Beginning in the 19th century several works appeared which sought to do a full scale biography of the life of Jesus. One of these works is called “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” (1910), by the theologian, Albert Schweitzer. In this work, Schweitzer shows how that Jesus was a failure.
Charles Taze Russell
He was born in Pennsylvania in the year of 1852. Leader of the movement called Jehovah’s witnesses, in the late 1870s. In 1884 he formed The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
Asuza Street Revival
A revival that happened in Los Angeles led by the preacher named William Seymour that emphasized “speaking in tongues”. It is not the beginning of Pentecostalism, but this movement launched Pentecostalism worldwide.
John R. Mott
An American Methodist layperson, who presided at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference, and which launched both the modern missions movement and the modern ecumenical movement.
British and Foreign Bible Society
Founded in 1804 in London, the British and Foreign Bible Society became later better known as Bible Society. Its main focus is in the publishing, distribution and translation of the Bible.
Jansenist Controversy
Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres was convinced that the semi-Pelagian Jesuit interpretations of sin and grace must be combated. But his work was condemned by Pope Urban VIII. Jansen found support among the more deeply religious Catholics of France.
John Locke
John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher whose ideas formed the foundation of liberal democracy. His idea is for religious freedom (liberty) because ‘all churches are voluntary associations’ and so no one should be coerced to believe a certain thing.
Part II
Name AND briefly explain the stages in the lifecycle of a voluntary association.
Incipient – association is formed around either an urgent objective or a charismatic leader.
Efficient – establishment of rules and protocols.
Formal – preoccupation with form and structure, discipline, and informal protocols.
Disorganization – Slow death or reorganization. Rarely religious associations die out completely.
Outline 3 elements of Pietism.
Devotion to Christianity
Bible oriented movement
Small group in structure
List 2 areas of impact the Enlightenment had on Biblical Interpretation.
Higher Criticism
Biblical Exegesis
Historically speaking, what are the differences between religious “liberalism” and “conservatism”?
Liberalism – Movement that grows out of the Enlightenment in Europe. Reasonableness is a very important term for this. Liberalism has a great impact on the authority of religion.
Conservatism – It is a revolt against liberal tradition. It is a call back to biblical Christianity. It is an affirmation of the incarnation of Christ, eternal life, inerrancy of Scripture.
What did Horace Bushnell mean by “Christian nurture”?
Conversion would come to a person through appropriate influences (proper nurture), since his/her childhood. You do not need necessarily pass in the course of struggling conversion experience.
List and explain 3 results of Vatican II
Supremacy of Scriptures – The Bible took on a new role and value as ultimate source and standard of truth.
Virgin Mary - Mariology wouldn’t be isolated from other theological and ecclesiological matters.
Sacred Liturgical – a revision of the rite of the mass and its more communal celebration was provided.
List 3 denominations in the US and its institutions.
Baptist – Baylor University
Presbyterian – Princeton University
Anglican – University of Pennsylvania
What is the difference between Neo-Orthodoxy and Fundamentalism?
Both were responses to liberalism. Fundamentalism believed in strict inerrancy of the Bible, and had as their mission defending Christian faith against higher criticism and liberal theology. Neo-orthodoxy lies in its unique concept of divine revelation. They see the Bible as unique channel of God’s Word and becomes God’s Word in the moment God chooses to use it to bring people into encounter with himself.
Explain 3 ways that Charles Finney changed the course of American Protestantism.
He brought revival methods called “new measures”. His tested methods soon came to be widely accepted and copied.
He published materials on how to promote revivals.
He was aware and involved with social problems, specially the problem of slavery.
EXTRA CREDIT
List the 3 most important figures in world Christianity of 20th century and why you selected each.
Karl Barth – His importance in a crucial time of the history of the church, rescuing the concept of God in a liberal church, and his influence as thinker and theologian, are the main reasons that I chose him.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer – He is considered a martyr for his faith. His position during the world war II, opposing the anti-Semitic ideas of Hitler, and opposing Nazism are the reasons I picked him.
F.F Bruce – His knowledge in the New Testament and his scholar in the life and ministry of the apostle Paul, made me pick him.
Part III
ESSAY
The character of Christian life and faith in USA began to be shaped during the second century of colonization. One great event or movement that happened was a series of revivals known as “The great awakening”.
To understand the importance of this event in the shaping of Christianity in the New World, more specific in United States, this movement is the analogue of Pietism in Germany and the evangelical awakening in Britain. This movement emphasized conversion, regenerative change and transformation. One of the pioneers of this movement was the congregational pastor Jonathan Edwards. Another principle figure in the Awakening was George Whitefield, also known as “the great itinerant”.
The great awake started in the North, but it also spread to the south, contributing to the growth of the Dissenting bodies. Almost all evangelical groups were affected by the awakening. Presbyterians expanded rapidly in Virginia, Baptists formed several Baptists churches. Methodist even getting late in America, many native lay preachers were drawn into the movement.
Around 1792, in New England a powerful reawakening was starting to happen and spreading throughout the land, this was called “the Second Great Awakening”.
The Second Great Awakening exercised a profound impact on American history. The numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans, Prebyterians, Congregationalist, and Quakers. Among the latter, efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. America was becoming a more diverse nation in the early to mid-19th century, and the growing differences within American Protestantism reflected and contributed to this diversity.
In the first part of the nineteenth century, several movements stimulated by the emotional climate of the awakening started appearing. The common characteristic of these movements was their distortions of the evangelical Protestant patterns. Movements like the seventh day and Jehovah’s Witness were formed during this time of America history.
In 1949, Billy Graham arises and begins his ministry; he is the symbol of modern evangelicalism. Graham uses TV and radio to expand the reaches of the Gospel.
Today’s evangelicalism is looked very differently to the past form. Post modern society has influenced the churches throughout the country and a great pluralism has invaded the ideas of not only ministers, and preachers but also the people in general.
What/who is and historical importance
Holy Club
It was a club formed by Charles Wesley, Robert Kirkham and William Morgan in the spring of 1729. In November of the same year, John Wesley became the leader of that group, which soon attracted other students. This club was called later the “Methodist”.
John Carroll
John Carroll was the bishop of Baltimore in England. He helped the growth of Catholicism in United States. He was founder of Georgetown University. By the time of Carroll’s death, the foundations of Catholicism in USA were well established, and the priesthood numbered more than one hundred.
Quest for the historical Jesus
Beginning in the 19th century several works appeared which sought to do a full scale biography of the life of Jesus. One of these works is called “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” (1910), by the theologian, Albert Schweitzer. In this work, Schweitzer shows how that Jesus was a failure.
Charles Taze Russell
He was born in Pennsylvania in the year of 1852. Leader of the movement called Jehovah’s witnesses, in the late 1870s. In 1884 he formed The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
Asuza Street Revival
A revival that happened in Los Angeles led by the preacher named William Seymour that emphasized “speaking in tongues”. It is not the beginning of Pentecostalism, but this movement launched Pentecostalism worldwide.
John R. Mott
An American Methodist layperson, who presided at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference, and which launched both the modern missions movement and the modern ecumenical movement.
British and Foreign Bible Society
Founded in 1804 in London, the British and Foreign Bible Society became later better known as Bible Society. Its main focus is in the publishing, distribution and translation of the Bible.
Jansenist Controversy
Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres was convinced that the semi-Pelagian Jesuit interpretations of sin and grace must be combated. But his work was condemned by Pope Urban VIII. Jansen found support among the more deeply religious Catholics of France.
John Locke
John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher whose ideas formed the foundation of liberal democracy. His idea is for religious freedom (liberty) because ‘all churches are voluntary associations’ and so no one should be coerced to believe a certain thing.
Part II
Name AND briefly explain the stages in the lifecycle of a voluntary association.
Incipient – association is formed around either an urgent objective or a charismatic leader.
Efficient – establishment of rules and protocols.
Formal – preoccupation with form and structure, discipline, and informal protocols.
Disorganization – Slow death or reorganization. Rarely religious associations die out completely.
Outline 3 elements of Pietism.
Devotion to Christianity
Bible oriented movement
Small group in structure
List 2 areas of impact the Enlightenment had on Biblical Interpretation.
Higher Criticism
Biblical Exegesis
Historically speaking, what are the differences between religious “liberalism” and “conservatism”?
Liberalism – Movement that grows out of the Enlightenment in Europe. Reasonableness is a very important term for this. Liberalism has a great impact on the authority of religion.
Conservatism – It is a revolt against liberal tradition. It is a call back to biblical Christianity. It is an affirmation of the incarnation of Christ, eternal life, inerrancy of Scripture.
What did Horace Bushnell mean by “Christian nurture”?
Conversion would come to a person through appropriate influences (proper nurture), since his/her childhood. You do not need necessarily pass in the course of struggling conversion experience.
List and explain 3 results of Vatican II
Supremacy of Scriptures – The Bible took on a new role and value as ultimate source and standard of truth.
Virgin Mary - Mariology wouldn’t be isolated from other theological and ecclesiological matters.
Sacred Liturgical – a revision of the rite of the mass and its more communal celebration was provided.
List 3 denominations in the US and its institutions.
Baptist – Baylor University
Presbyterian – Princeton University
Anglican – University of Pennsylvania
What is the difference between Neo-Orthodoxy and Fundamentalism?
Both were responses to liberalism. Fundamentalism believed in strict inerrancy of the Bible, and had as their mission defending Christian faith against higher criticism and liberal theology. Neo-orthodoxy lies in its unique concept of divine revelation. They see the Bible as unique channel of God’s Word and becomes God’s Word in the moment God chooses to use it to bring people into encounter with himself.
Explain 3 ways that Charles Finney changed the course of American Protestantism.
He brought revival methods called “new measures”. His tested methods soon came to be widely accepted and copied.
He published materials on how to promote revivals.
He was aware and involved with social problems, specially the problem of slavery.
EXTRA CREDIT
List the 3 most important figures in world Christianity of 20th century and why you selected each.
Karl Barth – His importance in a crucial time of the history of the church, rescuing the concept of God in a liberal church, and his influence as thinker and theologian, are the main reasons that I chose him.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer – He is considered a martyr for his faith. His position during the world war II, opposing the anti-Semitic ideas of Hitler, and opposing Nazism are the reasons I picked him.
F.F Bruce – His knowledge in the New Testament and his scholar in the life and ministry of the apostle Paul, made me pick him.
Part III
ESSAY
The character of Christian life and faith in USA began to be shaped during the second century of colonization. One great event or movement that happened was a series of revivals known as “The great awakening”.
To understand the importance of this event in the shaping of Christianity in the New World, more specific in United States, this movement is the analogue of Pietism in Germany and the evangelical awakening in Britain. This movement emphasized conversion, regenerative change and transformation. One of the pioneers of this movement was the congregational pastor Jonathan Edwards. Another principle figure in the Awakening was George Whitefield, also known as “the great itinerant”.
The great awake started in the North, but it also spread to the south, contributing to the growth of the Dissenting bodies. Almost all evangelical groups were affected by the awakening. Presbyterians expanded rapidly in Virginia, Baptists formed several Baptists churches. Methodist even getting late in America, many native lay preachers were drawn into the movement.
Around 1792, in New England a powerful reawakening was starting to happen and spreading throughout the land, this was called “the Second Great Awakening”.
The Second Great Awakening exercised a profound impact on American history. The numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans, Prebyterians, Congregationalist, and Quakers. Among the latter, efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. America was becoming a more diverse nation in the early to mid-19th century, and the growing differences within American Protestantism reflected and contributed to this diversity.
In the first part of the nineteenth century, several movements stimulated by the emotional climate of the awakening started appearing. The common characteristic of these movements was their distortions of the evangelical Protestant patterns. Movements like the seventh day and Jehovah’s Witness were formed during this time of America history.
In 1949, Billy Graham arises and begins his ministry; he is the symbol of modern evangelicalism. Graham uses TV and radio to expand the reaches of the Gospel.
Today’s evangelicalism is looked very differently to the past form. Post modern society has influenced the churches throughout the country and a great pluralism has invaded the ideas of not only ministers, and preachers but also the people in general.
Monday, December 05, 2005
As finais
Chegaram as provas finais, finalmente. Afinal, quem não faz final, é porque ainda nem começou. Porém as finais daqui, não são como as finais do Brasil. Aqui, final é a última prova que se faz, no Brasil, final é quem chegou ao fim, porém não conseguiu atingir o fim desejado.
Para se fazer uma boa final, o estudante tem que se esforçar, tanto aqui, quanto no Brasil, afim de no fim, passar de ano. Caso contrário, a final será o começo de um pesadelo que só terá fim, quando finalmente consegue-se tirar uma boa nota.
Amanhã faço a primeira das finais, e terça da próxima semana finalizo as finais.
Enfim..., para que minhas finais sejam realmente o fim deste semestre, vou estudar agora.
Para se fazer uma boa final, o estudante tem que se esforçar, tanto aqui, quanto no Brasil, afim de no fim, passar de ano. Caso contrário, a final será o começo de um pesadelo que só terá fim, quando finalmente consegue-se tirar uma boa nota.
Amanhã faço a primeira das finais, e terça da próxima semana finalizo as finais.
Enfim..., para que minhas finais sejam realmente o fim deste semestre, vou estudar agora.
Wednesday, November 30, 2005
Evangelicalismo na América Latina
O meu desejo era que todos que entrassem aqui, pudessem entender o texto abaixo.
Neste texto, o autor de forma detalhada fala sobre as pessoas que tem abandonado a religião protestante na America Latina, incluindo o Brasil. Muitos destes, estão retornando ao Catolicismo ou se auto entitulando “sem religião”. Fala também do estancamento do crescimento da religião evangélica na América Latina.
Rodrigo
______________________
Reprinted from International Buletin of Missionary Research (April 2004) with permission of the editor:
Shopping Around: Questions About Latin American Conversions
Edward L. Cleary, O.P.
Shopping Around: Questions About Latin American Conversions
Edward L. Cleary, O.P.
When two noted anthropologists canvassed colonization projects in Bolivia’s lowlands, they reached the last house on the new dirt road. The owner heard them coming and ran out of the house yelling as they approached, “Soy católico. Nunca van a convertirme” (I’m Catholic. You’re never going to convert me.) He was the last and only Catholic left in the project. This article focuses on the popular subject of conversion in Latin America, with the difficulties both of terminology and of actually counting the number of converts. At the center of the problem is the issue of how long these conversions last. It appears that, in Latin America at least, it is not prudent to study conversion without also studying dropping out, leaving religion, as well as entering it. Following earlier usage, we may also refer to such leaving as apostasy.
Religious Conversions in Latin America
At times it does seem that the whole of Latin America is converting. Religious conversion is the single greatest social process changing Latin America and the Caribbean in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Conversions from and within religious groups have rocked the region and changed the face of religion. The process has taken place through a series of quiet explosions that are only now becoming clear. While the mainstream media in the United States and Great Britain has taken notice of this process, coverage has focused mainly on the challenge that Pentecostalism has represented to the dominance of the Catholic Church. Far less attention has been paid to the role conversion and intensified religious practice have played in many other contexts, including the reinvigoration of Indian religions, African religions, and even of the Catholic Church itself. Indeed, the changes within religious denominations are as significant as those between denominations. While many Catholics are becoming Pentecostal, many mainstream Protestants and classic Pentecostals are also converting to “health and wealth” neo-Pentecostal groups. Traditional Catholics have converted to social Christianity by the millions. At the same time, many socially active Christians have joined more otherworldly Catholic and Protestant charismatic groups. Among the indigenous groups of the region, many persons who are officially Catholic now openly embrace Mayan or Andean spirituality.Many historians and social scientists who have been looking at Latin American religion for the last twenty or thirty years agree, first, that the main religious shift in Latin America has been from Catholicism to evangelical religion, especially Pentecostalism or neo-Pentecostalism. Mainstream Protestants also, however, have suffered losses. While these Protestants have been overshadowed by the fast-growing Pentecostals, in countries like Costa Rica or Argentina they exercise an influence far beyond their numbers.Second, the major sector of Catholicism affected by this shift has been that of nominal, indifferent Catholics, who have supplied most of the converts to Pentecostalism. This pool of nominal Catholics was very large. In 1960 probably two-thirds of the Catholic population seldom or never attended church. Starting in the late 1960s two trends occurred: large numbers of Catholics in many countries became active in church, and Protestants in two-thirds of Latin American countries gained large numbers of converts. Empirical studies and the long history of religious conversion have shown that the convinced and the committed are rarely converted to a different faith or group. Rather, it is typically the nominal Catholic or indifferent Protestant who becomes the engaged Pentecostal.Scholars from various disciplines have begun looking more closely at conversion in Latin America, asking who the converts are and how they became converted. Beside the insight that Pentecostal converts typically come from the large indifferent sector of Catholicism, we have evidence that converts adopt and remain in another religion primarily because of networks of friends, job acquaintances, and neighbors who bring them into the church and help them remain faithful. We have begun to look more systematically at why so many Latin Americans have changed religion, both by studying the social context for change and by listening to the reasons converts give for their new (or renewed) commitment to a religion.
Conversion, Switching, and Indifference
Observers note that the rates of conversion to the new and changing religious groups are far greater in some countries than in others. Geographers studying the patterns of religion show some sections of the same country with much greater religious change than other sections. Reginald Prandi and other veteran Brazilian observers note that 25 percent of the population of São Paulo, one of the largest cities of the world, have converted to another religion. Respected Argentine researchers have also noted the incursion of both Pentecostalism and African religion into the extremely traditional religious grounds of their country.For Latin American social scientists this moving between religions seems a new and especially Latin American characteristic. Some give explanations along the lines of switching religions being another Latin fad. Similar observations, however, were made of the United States, as newspapers in the 1990s spoke increasingly of a religious marketplace. The Boston Globe expressed some amazement at the blooming of black Pentecostal church buildings within its Puritan city, claiming that there were more Pentecostal churches in Boston than Catholic ones. Later the paper looked more closely and published another story, again with implied exclamation marks: 25 percent of the people in the Boston area had changed religious affiliation.Changing religious groups is not a new story in the United States. People have been switching church affiliation for decades. About 40 percent of North Americans belong to a religion different from the one in which they were raised. Some observers have claimed, on the basis of new churches being built, that switching must be more common than it was. This is not true, however, for there has been little, if any, increase above the 40 percent norm. Probably, then, Latin America lags behind the United States. I attribute this difference to Latin America becoming a more open and diversified society, although lagging behind the United States in the process.Religious switching raises questions about conversion. When much of the switching has been from denomination to denomination, it does not seem like a true biblical metanoia (repentance, or turning). Does the switching, at least in the United States, represent a trend toward a search for deeper spiritual decision making? Do switchers represent an intensified religious sensibility on the part of persons seeking new (and better) messages and new messengers? Perhaps, but more common reasons for changing religious affiliation include changes in life conditions, such as religiously mixed marriages; moving into new neighborhoods, cities, and regions of the country; searching for social services, such as day care or self-help groups (as for addiction sufferers); and new friendship circles. Pentecostalism does seem to change the way one looks at religion in Latin America. While it is clear that the main Pentecostal growth in Latin America is not induced from the United States, still Latin American Pentecostalism shares characteristics of religion in the United States. Specifically, it places exceptional emphasis on congregational participation and worship attendance as a measure of religious involvement. This emphasis is not true of all major and global religions. Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism emphasize ritual and worship at home and with the family to a much greater extent than Latin American Pentecostalism. Nor did Latin American Catholicism give the same weighty emphasis, as in Pentecostalism, to congregational participation and worship attendance. Popular Catholicism was, at least until recently, the religion of most Catholics. From their earliest years, practitioners of popular Catholicism learned from their parents that saints were somehow active in their lives and could be venerated in church, at home, or at strategic places in the city or country. Popular Catholics celebrated feasts, made promises, and prayed for blessings, in and outside of church.The criterion to be established here for later reference is that indifference, or having no religion, is not measured the same for Pentecostals as it is for popular Catholics. Indifference, being nada (nothing), for Pentecostals means not attending church at least weekly. For cultural Catholics, in contrast, it means not participating in some ritual, in or outside of church, by which God is honored.
Conflict over Terminology and Statistics
The terms used to refer to the various Christian groups are often unsatisfactory. We seem to be stuck with the Spanish term evangélico for a wide range of Protestants, which is the usage of Latin American demographers and also the way many Latin American Protestants refer to themselves. Recent authors dealing with Latin American religion, such as Timothy Steigenga and Kurt Bowen, have used this word broadly to include all non-Catholics who are Protestant, and many professional colleagues seem to have adopted their usage without objection. Steigenga and Bowen also distinguish between historical Protestants and Pentecostal Protestants. This usage may be unfortunate, since classic Pentecostals are uncomfortable being under the same tent with “health and wealth” neo-Pentecostals. (For that matter, many Pentecostal pastors consider Catholics to be outside the number of true Christians.)For statistics, recent academic publications continue to cite figures from Patrick Johnstone’s Operation World: The Day-by-Day Guide to Praying for the World (1993). A recent example is Anne Hallum’s citation in a key 2003 essay in the Latin American Research Review. After some initial hesitation (could I obtain reliable statistics from a prayer book?), I obtained a copy of this book, which was reputed to be the best source available for statistics on religion in Latin America. That might have been true ten years ago, but no longer. In Operation World (1993), Johnstone claimed that 27.9 percent of all Chileans were evangelicals, and 25.4 percent Pentecostal/charismatic. These figures, however, are much higher than those reported in the carefully and rigorously conducted national census of 1992, which showed only 12.4 percent evangélicos. According to preliminary indications, the national census of 2002 will reveal about 16 percent evangélicos. Other systematic surveys of Chilean religion have confirmed the levels of the 1992 census.The two other Latin American nations cited as the most Pentecostal or most Protestant are Brazil and Guatemala. For Brazil, no one doubts that Pentecostal growth there is impressive; probably half of Latin America’s Pentecostals reside in Brazil. In 1993 Johnstone gave the Protestant population as 21.6 percent of the national population. That stands in contrast with the national census of 2000, conducted by apparently competent demographers, that shows 15.4 percent evangélicos. Evangelicals themselves seem to be happy with the census’s lower figure. The Web site (www.infobrasil.org) of Servicio Evangelizadora para América Latina, or SEPAL, an international missionary group in Brazil, provides information based on the national census, not on Johnstone.(Please insert a footnote or endnote with a text similar to this: Hallum and some other authors do not refer to a later (2001) edition of Operation World in which authors Johnstone and Mandryk use much lower figures for Chile and Brazil and call attention to the fact that they are doing so.)
An End to Evangelical Growth?
Latinamericanists consistently identify Guatemala as the most Protestant country in Latin America. In Guatemala, however, evangelical growth has leveled off. Some Protestant missionaries within the country are now willing to admit there has been no growth for a decade.Since the early 1990s longtime experts on Guatemalan religion Virginia Garrard Burnett and Bruce Calder have reported their impressions that Protestant growth in Guatemala had leveled off. They observed that Protestant pastors and other observers of religion felt that Guatemalan Protestantism had reached a “kind of natural limit.” “Some people,” one pastor said in resignation, “will always be Catholic.”Surveys of Guatemalan religion, including those by SEPAL, have found that Protestant growth rates were indeed flat. One might think that this information would be important in mission and academic circles, but missiologists and academics have generally failed to take notice.Only now is it clear from SEPAL and other sources that the growth of Pentecostalism and Protestantism leveled off in Guatemala some time ago at about 25 percent Protestant in the Guatemalan total population. The Gallup Organization’s group in Guatemala began doing surveys in the country in the 1990s, including questions of religious affiliation. These surveys, repeated at various intervals and by now in the public domain for a number of years, consistently have showed Protestant affiliation to be in the 25 percent range. One might note that though their number as a proportion of the Guatemalan population has remained constant, the conversion rate for neo-Pentecostals and others counted as evangélicos has continued to increase. How can that be? How can a rising rate of conversions be paired with a stagnant rate of growth? We shall see that conversion in only one part of the story.
Nonpractice Among Pentecostals
An initial observation is that many Pentecostals are not very observant. This is a fact that one would not easily learn, even from persons who conduct valuable studies. Two systematic surveys of Chilean religion were conducted by the Chilean Institute of Public Studies, an institute similar to that of the American Enterprise Institute in Washington and having close ties to eminent sociologist Peter Berger of Boston University. In 1991 this Chilean institute published studies that went beyond census data and asked about church attendance. It was quite a surprise to learn that less than half of Chile’s Pentecostals attend church once a week, and more than a third hardly attend church at all.One of the main researchers, Arturo Fontaine Talavera, barely alluded to the significance of nonpractice among Chilean Pentecostals. But this finding was scandalous to Pentecostal pastors, since Pentecostals strongly stress attendance at weekly services and many Pentecostals go to church more than once a week. The results of the surveys were broadcast on Chilean television and threw pastors into a panic. By and large, Pentecostal pastors took up the challenge of religious nonpractice directly and honestly, searching their souls for reasons for the worrisome dropping out. They wondered whether a contributing factor might be the growing distance between the education and class background of the pastors versus that of the persons in the pews. At the time, 40 percent of Pentecostals were middle class in terms of education, which was a higher percentage than that of pastors. The same pattern of nonattendance is evident in Mexico. Bowen found that “fewer than half, forty-eight percent, continued to be active evangelicals who attended a church service at least once weekly.” The vast majority of the other 52 percent never or almost never attended services.
Leaving Protestantism
A further consideration is that leaving church or religion, dropping out, though seriously understudied in the United States, is even less well researched in Latin America. Recent studies have found that not only is nonpractice widespread but also many Protestants are leaving their churches altogether. Bowen found that 43 percent of those raised in Protestant churches were no longer Protestants as adults. Also, 68 percent of those baptized in Protestant churches in Mexico in the 1980s had left by 1990. Steigenga believes the same rates of leaving may be true in Guatemala. As noted above, several Latin American countries exhibit a rather high rate of evangelical conversion, but not much of a rise or none at all in the percentage of Protestants. Retention is thus clearly a factor. In terms of conversion, when 40 percent or so do not continue in their commitment, does the conversion itself have to be doubted? In Latin America, one common response is to say that only God knows. But in social science and missiology, when a religion displays such a high dropout rate, to discuss conversion without also looking at apostasy seems partial and misleading. One reason researchers have overlooked the significance of church leaving may be that they believed they were looking at nomadismo: people shopping around for religion. In typical patterns, people shifted from indifferent Catholic to Pentecostal, from Pentecostal to neo-Pentecostal, from Catholic to Afro-Brazilian religions. Sometimes they seemed to convert to these religions all in the same day.
Why They Leave
One can learn a lot from delving into church leaving. Here we are discussing mainly Pentecostals who have departed. Not only are Pentecostals the largest non-Catholic group in Latin America, but also, judging by Mexico, they may have the highest dropout rates. But why? The responses are complex, but years of interviewing Pentecostals and of observing Pentecostal churches in most Latin American countries convinces me that living up to the perfectionist character of Pentecostalism is extremely difficult. Over the long haul, most people simply tire of trying to follow the heavy moral and social demands that many Pentecostal churches impose. Entry into Pentecostalism takes seriously the turning that early Christians thought necessary. Men and women are expected to change their behavior to include not only the familiar rules of no smoking, no drinking, and no dancing and the giving of 10 percent of one’s income to the church, but also marital fidelity and a wholehearted embrace of communal life and frequent prayer. The Assemblies of God churches that flourished in Central America have had pastors who preach observance of the Reglamento local, the stated rules for doctrine and practice by which the communicants are expected to live. Members of Assemblies churches, as classic Pentecostals, have a gritty sense of living counterculturally, an acute awareness of evil in persons and institutions, and a humility born from watching their own and others’ minor slips and major failures. Many Central American pastors confided to Everett Wilson, recent president of Bethany College (Scotts Valley, California) and longtime resident in Central America, that over a long period of time only about 15 percent of congregants showed fidelity to the Reglamento local. There is another side to the Pentecostal churches’ high dropout rate that needs to be explored, an aspect that few have emphasized. Do Pentecostal churches keep key members and attract many new ones because, directly or indirectly, they effectively cast off their faltering members? After he had walked along Mexican dirt roads and byways for years, listening to Pentecostal pastors and communicants, it occurred to Bowen that Latin American Pentecostal churches actually cast off the less committed among their members so that those more committed might continue unimpeded in the pursuit of their high goals. Less committed members would tend to pull the more committed down to a common denominator of laxer practice. The churches keep the luster of their religion bright precisely by shedding the nonobservant and the unrepentant.
Moving to No Religion
Until recently, Latin America stood out, at least from Europe and Canada, in having relatively few persons in the category “no religion.” Manuel Marzal, a respected expert in religious research in Latin America, says that this kind of person was hardly representative of Latin Americans. His argument is based not only on forty years of looking at religion in the region but also on a global study of religion in 2000. Marzal’s view is challenged, however, by new evidence that shows a widening pool of “no religion” in Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Chile. This new fact lends significance to the question, Where are the church leavers going? Much anecdotal evidence exists indicating that many Pentecostal dropouts return to the Catholic Church. James Scanlon, a Maryknoll priest, said that he and his activist parish members brought 1,800 persons in his Guatemala City neighborhood back to the Catholic Church. Somewhat similar stories were heard by others in Guatemala. But Steigenga, who conducted surveys in Costa Rica and Guatemala in 1992 and 1993, took a careful look at the persons who said they had no religious affiliation and found evidence that many had practiced, some rather profoundly, evangelical religion. Of this group, 13 percent said they had spoken in tongues, 37 percent said they had experienced a personal conversion, and 57 percent said they experienced a miraculous healing. In general he found that few former evangelicals turned (one cannot say returned, because many were born Protestants) to Catholicism. Polls in Guatemala since 1990 show a group of about 12 percent of the national population that identify themselves as having no religion.In Mexico Bowen’s grassroots questioning of evangelical pastors and lay Mexicans found that 43 percent of those raised in the second-generation of evangelicals no longer claimed any religious affiliation. Within that group, the rate for Pentecostal dropouts in the second generation was even higher: 48 percent. He found that hardly any of the leavers chose to practice Catholicism or any other faith. In terms of Mexican evangelicalism, they were nada (nothing). This conclusion repeated what Steigenga found in Guatemala and Costa Rica, where leavers from evangelical, mostly Pentecostal backgrounds may be going into a dark pool of “no religion.” This is a new category, one virtually unknown previously in Guatemala and much of Latin America. But what is it like to be without religion in this hotly religious country? Would one feel relief to be on an island of calm away from the heat of religious passion? Do people who say they have no religion still believe in God? Are they hurting and in need of help? We know almost nothing about this category.
In Conclusion
By looking at both conversion and dropping away, it becomes possible to ask whether evangelicals are destined to remain a small but vibrant minority, or whether they are capable of embracing sufficient numbers of Latin Americans for Latin American society as a whole to be transformed. It is clear that the capacity of the vibrant community of evangelicals to change the face of Latin American religion is severely curtailed by its inability to retain many of its members. The Mexican churches are losing many new members. The older Chilean churches are also losing members, perhaps third- and fourth-generation ones. It is also clear that there is a growing pool of Latin Americans with no religion. This is no surprise to those who look at the challenge of conversion. We still stand in amazement at Paul, Augustine, and Latin Americans who persevered in their Christian commitment.
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Edward L. Cleary, O.P., is Professor of Political Science and Director of Latin American Studies, Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island. He served as a missionary in Bolivia and Peru, 1958–63 and 1968–71.
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